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Max Nordau | |
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 Nordau,c. 1906 | |
| Born | Simon Maximilian Südfeld (1849-07-29)29 July 1849 |
| Died | 23 January 1923(1923-01-23) (aged 73) Paris, France |
| Occupations |
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| Known for | Co-founder ofWorld Zionist Organization |
| Notable work | Degeneration (1892) |
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Max Simon Nordau (bornSimon Maximilian Südfeld; 29 July 1849 – 23 January 1923) was a JewishZionist leader, physician, author, andsocial critic.[1] He was a co-founder of theZionist Organization together withTheodor Herzl, and president or vice-president of several Zionist congresses.
In his younger years, he was known as a social critic, writingThe Conventional Lies of Our Civilisation (1883),Degeneration (1892), andParadoxes (1896). By 1913, Nordau was established as the earliest major critic ofmodernism.[2] Although not his most popular or successful work while alive,Degeneration is the book most often remembered and cited today.
Simon (Simcha) Maximilian Südfeld (later Max Nordau) was born in the city ofPest,Kingdom of Hungary, then part of theAustrian Empire. His father, Gabriel Südfeld, was a rabbi,[3] but earned his livelihood as a Hebrew tutor.[4] As anOrthodox Jew, Nordau attended a Jewish elementary school, and earned a medical degree from theUniversity of Pest in 1872. He then traveled for six years, visiting the principal countries of Europe. He changed his name before going to Berlin in 1873. In 1878, he began the practice of medicine in Budapest. In 1880, he went to Paris.[5] He worked in Paris as a correspondent for the Austrian daily newspaperNeue Freie Presse, and it was in Paris that he spent most of his life.
Before entering the university, he had begun his literary career in Budapest as a contributor and dramatic critic for the German language newspaperDer Zwischenact. Subsequently, he was an editorial writer and correspondent for several other newspapers. His newspaper writings were collected and furnished the material for his earlier books. He was a disciple ofCesare Lombroso.[5]
Nordau was an example of a fully assimilated and acculturated European Jew. Despite being raised religious, Nordau was an agnostic.[6] He married a Christian woman of Danish origin.[7] despite of being born in Hungary, he felt affiliated to German culture, writing in an autobiographical sketch "When I reached the age of fifteen, I left the Jewish way of life and the study of theTorah ... Judaism remained a mere memory and since then I have always felt as a German and as a German only."[8] Max Nordau was the father of the painterMaxa Nordau (1897–1993).[9]
Nordau's conversion to Zionism was eventually triggered by theDreyfus affair. Many Jews, amongst themTheodor Herzl, saw in the Dreyfus affair evidence of the universality ofantisemitism.[10]
Nordau went on to play a major role in theWorld Zionist Organization; indeed, Nordau's relative fame certainly helped bring attention to the Zionist movement. He can be credited with giving the organization a democratic character.
In December 1903, the 24-year-old Russian student Chaim Zelig Luban attempted to assassinate Nordau at a ParisianHanukkah celebration. The attacker shouted "Death to the East African" as he fired his gun, a reference to Nordau's support for theUganda Plan.[11][5]
When World War I broke out, as a native ofAustria-Hungary, he was accused by the French of enemy sympathies. He denied the charge and afterward went to reside inMadrid.[12]
After the war, Nordau moved back to France. He died in Paris in 1923.
Nordau's conversion to Zionism is in many ways typical of the rise of Zionism amongst Western European Jewry. TheDreyfus affair was central toTheodor Herzl's conviction that Zionism was now necessary. Herzl's views were formed during his time in France, where he recognized the universality of antisemitism; the Dreyfus Affair cemented his belief in the failure of assimilation. Nordau also witnessed the Paris mob outside the École Militaire crying"à morts les juifs!" ("death to the Jews!").
His role of friend and advisor to Herzl, who was working as the correspondent for the VienneseNeue Freie Presse, began here in Paris. This trial went beyond a miscarriage of justice and in Herzl's words "contained the wish of the overwhelming majority in France, to damn a Jew, and in this one Jew, all Jews". Whether or not theantisemitism manifested in France during the Dreyfus affair was indicative of the majority of the French or simply a very vocal minority is open to debate. However, the very fact that such sentiment had manifested itself in France was particularly significant. This was the country often seen as the model of the modernenlightened age, which had given Europe the Great Revolution and beginnings ofJewish emancipation.
Nordau's work as a critic of European civilization and where it was heading certainly contributed to his eventual role in Zionism. One of the central tenets of Nordau's beliefs was evolution, in all things, and he concluded that emancipation was not born out of evolution. French rationalism of the 18th century, based on pure logic, demanded that all men be treated equally. Nordau perceived Jewish Emancipation as the result of "a regular equation: Every man is born with certain rights; the Jews are human beings, consequently the Jews are born to own the rights of man." This Emancipation was written in the statute books of Europe, but contrasted with popular social consciousness. It was this which explained the apparent contradiction of equality before the law. Yet the existence of antisemitism, and in particular 'racial' antisemitism, was no longer based on old religious bigotry. Nordau cited England as an exception to this continental antisemitism that proved the rule. "In England, Emancipation is a truth … It had already been completed in the heart before legislation expressly confirmed it." Only if Emancipation came from changes within society, as opposed to abstract ideas imposed upon society, could it be a reality. Nordau's rejection of the accepted idea of Emancipation was not based entirely on the Dreyfus Affair. It had manifested itself much earlier inThe Conventional Lies of Our Civilisation(Die konventionellen Lügen der Kulturmenschheit) (1883), and in reviling 'degenerate' and 'lunatic' antisemitism inDegeneration(Die Entartung) (1892).
Nordau also, at the 1898 Zionist Congress, coined the term "muscular Judaism" (Muskeljudentum) as a descriptor of a Jewish culture and religion which directed its adherents to reach for certain moral and corporeal ideals which, through discipline, agility and strength, would result in a stronger, more physically assured, Jew who would outshine the long-held stereotype of the weak, intellectually sustained, Jew. He further explored the concept of the "muscle Jew" in a 1900 article of theJewish Gymnastics Journal.[13] His ideology is predated by "muscular Christianity".
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Nordau was central to theZionist Congresses, which played a vital part in shaping Zionism. Herzl had favoured the idea of a Jewish newspaper and an elitist "Society of Jews" to spread the ideas of Zionism. It was Nordau, convinced that Zionism had to at least appear democratic, despite the impossibility of representing all Jewish groups, who persuaded Herzl of the need for an assembly. This appearance of democracy certainly helped counter accusations that the "Zionists represented no one but themselves". There were to be eleven such Congresses in all. The first, which Nordau organized, was in Basle, 29–31 August 1897. His fame as an intellectual helped draw attention to the project. Indeed, the fact that Max Nordau, the trenchant essayist and journalist, was a Jew came as a revelation for many. Herzl obviously took centre stage, making the first speech at the Congress; Nordau followed him with an assessment of the Jewish condition in Europe. Nordau used statistics to paint a portrait of the dire straits of Eastern Jewry and also expressed his belief in the destiny of Jewish people as a democratic nation state, free of what he saw as the constraints of Emancipation.
Nordau's speeches to theWorld Zionist Congress re-examined the Jewish people, in particular, stereotypes of the Jews. He fought against the tradition of seeing the Jews as merchants or business people, arguing that most modern financial innovations, such as insurance, had been invented by gentiles. He saw the Jewish people as having a unique gift for politics, a calling which they were unable to fulfil without their own nation-state. Whereas Herzl favoured the idea of an elite forming policy, Nordau insisted that the Congress have a democratic nature of some sort, calling for votes on key topics.
At theSixth Zionist Congress, Nordau defended a Jewish state in theHoly Land, publicizing a support from theBritish Empire, theKaiser, theRussian Empire and a possible support from theAmerican government in a near future.[14]
Nordau's major workEntartung (Degeneration) is a moralistic attack on what he believed to bedegenerate art, as well as a polemic against the effects of a range of the rising social phenomena of the period, such as rapid urbanization and its perceived effects on the human body.
InRéflexions sur la question gay (translated into English asInsult and the Making of the Gay Self[15]),Didier Eribon refers to a whole section in Nordau's book targetingOscar Wilde in aggressive terms: "Wilde loves immorality, sin, and crime". According to Eribon, the two volumes ofDegeneration are centred on a description of the artistic and literary currents of an "end-of-century" that was leading society to "ruin". Nordau attackssymbolists,mystics,Pre-Raphaelites,Wagnerism,Aestheticism, andDecadentism.Huysmans andZola are also targeted by him as "neurotics" and "the worst kind of enemies of society", against whom the latter had "a duty to defend itself". He sustained that society was "at the highest of a serious intellectual epidemic, some kind of Black Death of degeneration and hysteria, such that it is only natural to hear a generalized, anguished questioning: 'What is going to happen?'" Therefore, he called uponjudges,teachers,politicians, all those who wished to protectcivilization, to organize repression and censorship. As forpsychiatrists, their role would be predominant in such academia of "honest people" in charge of condemning "works that speculate onimmorality". Any artist whom this small cluster of "the most qualified men of the people" might dislike would be doomed, because in such case "both the man and his work would be annihilated".[16]
Nordau'sDegeneration is cited byWilliam James in his lecture on Neurology and Religion at the beginning ofThe Varieties of Religious Experience. James mocks the author for his "bulky book" on the grounds that he exemplifies the then-current school of medical materialism, stating that Nordau "has striven to impugn the value of works of genius in a wholesale way (such works of contemporary art, namely, as he himself is unable to enjoy, and they are many) by using medical arguments".[17]
In 1926 Nordau's remains were moved toTel Aviv'sTrumpeldor Cemetery. A major Tel Aviv street is namedNordau Boulevard.
There has been a literaryNordau Prize awarded in Israel.
Like Herzl, Nordau was an agnostic, if not an atheist.
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