Maudgalyayana | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Title |
|
| Personal life | |
| Born | c. 6th-5th century BCE[1] |
| Died | c. 6th-5th century BCE Kālasilā Cave,Magadha |
| Parent(s) | Mother: Moggalī, father: name unknown |
| Religious life | |
| Religion | Buddhism |
| School | all |
| Senior posting | |
| Teacher | Gautama Buddha |
Students
| |
| Translations of Maudgalyayana | |
|---|---|
| Sanskrit | Maudgalyāyana Sthavira |
| Pali | Moggallāna Thera |
| Burmese | ရှင်မဟာမောဂ္ဂလာန် (MLCTS:ʃɪ̀ɴməhàmaʊʔɡəlàɴ) |
| Chinese | 目連/摩诃目犍乾连 (Pinyin:Mùlián/Móhēmùjiānqiánlián) |
| Japanese | 目犍連 (Rōmaji:Mokuren/Mokkenren) |
| Khmer | ព្រះមោគ្គលាន (UNGEGN:Preah Mokkealean) |
| Korean | 摩訶目犍連/目連 (RR:Mongryŏn/Mokkŏllyŏn) |
| Mongolian | Molun Toyin |
| Sinhala | මහමුගලන් මහ රහතන් වහන්සේ |
| Tibetan | མོའུ་འགལ་གྱི་བུ་ (Mo'u 'gal gy i bu chen po) |
| Tamil | முகிலண்ணர் (Mukilannar) |
| Thai | พระโมคคัลลานะ (RTGS:Phra Mokkhanlana) |
| Vietnamese | Mục-kiền-liên |
| Glossary of Buddhism | |
Maudgalyāyana (Pali:Moggallāna), also known asMahāmaudgalyāyana or by his birth nameKolita, was one ofthe Buddha's closest disciples. Described as a contemporary of disciples such asSubhuti,Śāriputra (Pali:Sāriputta), andMahākāśyapa (Pali:Mahākassapa), he is considered the second of the Buddha's two foremost male disciples, together withŚāriputra. Traditional accounts relate that Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra become spiritual wanderers in their youth. After having searched for spiritual truth for a while, they come into contact with the Buddhist teaching through verses that have become widely known in the Buddhist world. Eventually they meet the Buddha himself andordain as monks under him. Maudgalyāyana attainsenlightenment shortly after that.
Maudgalyayana and Śāriputra have a deep spiritual friendship. They are depicted inBuddhist art as the two disciples that accompany the Buddha, and they have complementing roles as teachers. As a teacher, Maudgalyayana is known for his psychic powers, and he is often depicted using these in his teaching methods. In many early Buddhist canons, Maudgalyāyana is instrumental in re-uniting themonastic community afterDevadatta causes a schism. Furthermore, Maudgalyāyana is connected with accounts about the making of the first Buddha image. Maudgalyāyana dies at the age of eighty-four, killed through the efforts of a rival sect. This violent death is described in Buddhist scriptures as a result of Maudgalyāyana'skarma of having killed his own parents in a previous life.
Through post-canonical texts, Maudgalyāyana became known for hisfilial piety through a popular account of him transferring hismerits to his mother. This led to a tradition in many Buddhist countries known as theghost festival, during which peoplededicate their merits to their ancestors. Maudgalyāyana has also traditionally been associated withmeditation and sometimesAbhidharma texts, as well as theDharmaguptaka school. In the nineteenth century,relics were found attributed to him, which have been widely venerated. His female counterpart wasUtpalavarṇā (Pali:Uppalavaṇṇā).
In thePali Canon, it is described that Maudgalyāyana had a skin color like a blue lotus or a rain cloud. Oral tradition in Sri Lanka says that this was because he was born inhell in many lifetimes(see§ Death).[2][3] Sri Lankan scholar Karaluvinna believes that originally adark skin was meant, not blue.[3] In theMahāsāṃghika Canon, it is stated that he was "beautiful to look at, pleasant, wise, intelligent, full of merits ...", as translated byMigot.[4]
In some Chinese accounts, the clan nameMaudgalyāyana is explained as referring to a legume, which was eaten by an ancestor of the clan.[5] However, the IndologistErnst Windisch linked the figure of Maudgalyayana to the figure of Maudgalya (Mugdala) who appears in the Sanskrit epicMahabharata, which would explain the name. Windisch believed the account of the diviner Maudgalya had influenced that of Maudgalyayana, since both relate to a journey to heaven. AuthorEdward J. Thomas considered this improbable, though. Windischdid consider Maudgalyāyana a historical person.[6]
According toBuddhist texts, Maudgalyāyana is born in a family of the village Kolita (also known as Kulika, earlier thought to be modern day Kul[7] inSilao but now identified as Juafardih[8][9] nearNalanda), after which he is named. His mother is Mogallāni, and his father is the village chief.[2][7] Kolita is born on the same day as Upatiṣya (Pali:Upatissa; later to be known as Śāriputra), and the two are friends from childhood.[2][10][11] Kolita and Upatiṣya develop an interest in the spiritual life when they are young. One day while they are watching a festival asense of disenchantment and spiritual urgency overcomes them: they wish to leave the worldly life behind and start their spiritual life under the mendicant wandererSañjaya Vairatiputra (Pali:Sañjaya Belatthiputta).[note 1] In theTheravāda and Mahāsāṃghika canons, Sañjaya is described as a teacher in theIndian Sceptic tradition, as he does not believe in knowledge or logic, nor does he answer speculative questions. Since he cannot satisfy Kolita and Upatiṣya's spiritual needs, they leave.[13][14][15] In theMūlasarvāstivāda Canon, theChinese Buddhist Canon and inTibetan accounts, however, he is depicted as a teacher with admirable qualities such asmeditative vision and religious zeal. He falls ill though, and dies, causing the two disciples to look further. In some accounts, he even goes so far to predict the coming of the Buddha through his visions.[16][17]
Regardless, Kolita and Upatiṣya leave and continue their spiritual search, splitting up in separate directions. They make an agreement that the first to find the"ambrosia" of the spiritual life will tell the other. What follows is the account leading to Kolita and Upatiṣya taking refuge under the Buddha, which is considered an ancient element of the textual tradition.[18] Upatiṣya meets a Buddhist monk namedAśvajit (Pali:Assaji), one of the first five disciples of the Buddha, who is walking to receivealms from devotees.[2][7] In the Mūlasarvāstivāda version, the Buddha has sent him there to teach Upatiṣya.[19] Aśvajit's serene deportment inspires Upatiṣya to approach him and learn more.[2][20] Aśvajit tells him he is still newly ordained and can only teach a little. He then expresses the essence of the Buddha's teaching in these words:[21][22][note 2]
Of all phenomena sprung from a cause
The Teacher the cause hath told;
And he tells, too, how each shall come to its end,
For such is the word of the Sage.
— Translated byT. W. Rhys Davids[24]
These words help Upatiṣya to attainthe first stage on the Buddhist spiritual path. After this, Upatiṣya tells Kolita about his discovery and Kolita also attains the first stage. The two disciples, together with Sañjaya's five hundred students, go toordain as monks under the Buddha in Veṇuvana (Pali:Veḷuvana).[20][25] From the time of their ordination, Upatiṣya and Kolita become known as Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana, respectively,Maudgalyāyana being the name of Kolita'sclan.[26] After having ordained, all except Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana attainarhat (Pali:arahant; last stage ofenlightenment).[21][25] Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra attain enlightenment one to two weeks later, Maudgalyāyana inMagadha, in a village called Kallavala.[25][27] At that time, drowsiness is obstructing him from attaining further progress on the path. After he has a vision of the Buddha advising him how to overcome it, he has a breakthrough and attains enlightenment.[21][25] In some accounts, it is said that he meditates on theelements in the process.[28] In theCommentary to the PaliDhammapada, the question is asked why the two disciples attain enlightenment more slowly than the other former students of Sañjaya. The answer given is that Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana are like kings, who require a longer time to prepare for a journey than commoners. In other words, their attainment is of greater depth than the other students and therefore requires more time.[27]
Aśvajit's brief statement, known as theYe Dharma Hetu stanza ("Of all phenomena..."), has traditionally been described as the essence of the Buddhist teaching, and is the most inscribed verse throughout the Buddhist world.[20][21][22] It can be found in all Buddhist schools,[7] is engraved in many materials, can be found on many Buddha statues andstūpas (structures with relics), and is used in their consecration rituals.[20][29] According to IndologistOldenberg and translatorThanissaro Bhikkhu, the verses were recommended in one ofEmperor Asoka's edicts as subject of study and reflection.[30][31][note 3] The role of the stanza is not completely understood by scholars. Apart from the complex nature of the statement, it has also been noted it has not anywhere been attributed to the Buddha in this form, which indicates it was Aśvajit's own summary or paraphrasing.[34][20] IndologistT.W. Rhys Davids believed the brief poem may have made a special impression on Maudgalyāyana and Sariputta, because of the emphasis on causation typical for Buddhism.[21] PhilosopherPaul Carus explained that the stanza was a bold andiconoclastic response toBrahmanic traditions, as it "repudiates miracles of supernatural interference by unreservedly recognising the law of cause and effect as irrefragable",[29] whereas Japanese Zen teacherSuzuki was reminded of the experience that is beyond the intellect, "in which one idea follows another in sequence finally to terminate in conclusion or judgment".[35][36]
Although in the Pali tradition, Maudgalyāyana is described as anarhat who will no longer be reborn again, in theMahayāna traditions this is sometimes interpreted differently. In theLotus Sutra, Chapter 6 (Bestowal of Prophecy), the Buddha is said to predict that the disciplesMahākasyapa,Subhuti,Mahakatyayana, and Maudgalyāyana will becomeBuddhas in the future.[37][25]
On the day of Maudgalyāyana's ordination, the Buddha allows him and Śāriputra to take the seats of the chief maledisciples.[2] According to the PaliBuddhavaṃsa text, eachBuddha has had such a pair of chief disciples.[38] As they have just ordained, some other monks feel offended that the Buddha gives such honor to them. The Buddha responds by pointing out that seniority in the monkhood is not the only criterion in such an appointment, and explains his decision further by relating a story from the past.[2][39] He says that both disciplesaspired many lifetimes ago to become chief disciples under him. They made such a resolution since the age of the previousBuddha Aṇomadassī, when Maudgalyāyana was a layman called Sirivadha. Sirivaddha felt inspired to become a chief disciple under a future Buddha after his friend, Śāriputra in a previous life, recommended that he do so. He then invited Buddha Aṇomadassī and themonastic community (Saṃgha) to have food at his house for seven days, during which he made his resolution to become a chief disciple for the first time. Afterwards, he and Śāriputra continued to do good deeds for many lifetimes, until the time ofSakyamuni Buddha.[2] After the Buddha appoints Maudgalyāyana as chief disciple, he becomes known as "Mahā-Maudgalyāyana",mahā meaning 'great'.[40] This epithet is given to him as an honor, and to distinguish him from others of the same name.[41]
Post-canonical texts describe Maudgalyāyana as the second chief male disciple, next to Śāriputra. The early canons agree that Śāriputra is spiritually superior to Maudgalyāyana, and their specializations are described aspsychic powers (Sanskrit:ṛddhi,Pali:iddhi) for Maudgalyāyana andwisdom for Śāriputra.[42][note 4] InBuddhist art enliterature, Buddhas are commonly depicted with two main disciples (Japanese:niky ōji,Classical Tibetan:mchog zung) at their side—in the case of Sakyamuni Buddha, the two disciples depicted are most often Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra. Although there are different perspectives among differentBuddhist canons as to the merits of each disciple, in all Buddhist canons, Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra are recognized as the two main disciples of the Buddha. This fact is also confirmed by iconography as discovered in archaeological findings, in which the two disciples tend to be pictured attending their master.[44] Moreover, Maudgalyāyana is often included in traditional lists of 'four great disciples' (pinyin:sida shengwen)[45] and eightarhats.[46] Despite these widespread patterns in both scripture and archaeological research, it has been noted that in later iconography,Ānanda and Mahākasyapa are depicted much more, and Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra are depicted much less.[47]
The lives of Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra are closely connected. Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra are born on the same day, and die in the same period. Their families have long been friends. In their student years, Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra are co-pupils under the same teacher.[48][49] After having helped each other to find the essence of the spiritual life, their friendship remains. In manysutras they show high appreciation and kindness to one another.[2] For example, when Śāriputra falls ill, it is described that Maudgalyāyana used his psychic powers to obtain medicine for Śāriputra.[50] Śāriputra is considered the wisest disciple of the Buddha, but Maudgalyāyana is second to him in wisdom.[2][51] The one thing that gives them a strong bond as spiritual friends is the love for the Buddha, which both express often.[52]
Several teachings in the Pali Canon are traditionally ascribed to Maudgalyāyana, including several verses in theTheragatha and manysutras in theSamyutta Nikaya. Besides these, there are many passages that describe events in his life. He is seen as learned and wise in ethics, philosophy and meditation. When comparing Śāriputra with Maudgalyāyana, the Buddha uses the metaphor of a woman giving birth to a child for Śāriputra, in that he establishes new students in the first attainment on the spiritual path (Pali:sotāpanna). Maudgalyāyana, however, is compared with the master who trains the child up, in that he develops his students further along the path to enlightenment.[2][53]
The Buddha is described in the texts as placing great faith in Maudgalyāyana as a teacher.[2] He often praises Maudgalyāyana for his teachings, and sometimes has Maudgalyāyana teach in his place.[54][55] Maudgalyāyana is also given the responsibility to trainRahula, the Buddha's son. On another occasion, the Buddha has Maudgalyāyana announce a ban on a group of monks living in Kitigara, whose problematic behavior has become widely known in the area.[56] Furthermore, Maudgalyāyana plays a crucial role during theschism caused by the discipleDevadatta. Through his ability to communicate withdevas (god-like beings), he learns that Devadatta was acting inappropriately. He obtains information that Devadatta is enjoining PrinceAjātasattu (Pali:Ajātasattu) for help, and the two form a dangerous combination. Maudgalyāyana therefore informs the Buddha of this.[57][58] Later, when Devadatta has successfully created a split in the Buddhist community, the Buddha asks Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra to convince Devadatta's following to reunite with the Buddha, which in the Pali account they are able to accomplish.[2][59][note 5] Because Devadatta believes they come to join his following, he lets his guard down. They then persuade the other monks to return while Devadatta is asleep. After the split off party has successfully been returned to the Buddha, Maudgalyāyana expresses astonishment because of Devadatta's actions. The Buddha explains that Devadatta had acted like this habitually, throughout many lifetimes. In the Vinaya texts of some canons, the effort at persuading the split off monks is met with obstinacy and fails. French BuddhologistAndré Bareau believes this latter version of the account to be historically authentic, which he further supports by the report of the Chinese pilgrimXuan Zang, twelve centuries later, that Devadatta's sect had still continued to exist.[61]
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In theAṅguttara Nikāya, Maudgalyāyana is called foremost in psychic powers, a title he shares with his female counterpartUtpalavarṇā.[62][63][64] In teaching, Maudgalyāyana relies much on such powers. Varying accounts in the Pali Canon show Maudgalyāyana travelling to and speaking withpretas (spirits inunhappy destinations) in order to explain to them their horrific conditions. He helps them understand their own suffering, so they can be released from it or come to terms with it. He then reports this to the Buddha, who uses these examples in his teachings.[2][59] Similarly, Maudgalyāyana is depicted as conversing withdevas andbrahmas (heavenly beings), and askingdevas what deeds they did to be reborn in heaven.[59][65] In summary, Maudgalyāyana's meditative insights and psychic powers are not only to his own benefit, but benefit the public at large. In the words of historian Julie Gifford, he guides others "by providing a cosmological and karmic map of samsara".[66]
Maudgalyāyana is able to use his powers of mind-reading in order to give good and fitting advice to his students, so they can attain spiritual fruits quickly.[67] He is described as using his psychic powers to discipline not only monks, but alsodevas and other beings. One day some monks are making noise as they were sitting in the same building as the Buddha. Maudgalyāyana then shakes the building, to teach the monks to be more restrained.[59][68] But the most-quoted example of Maudgalyāyana's demonstration of psychic powers is his victory over thedragon (naga) Nandopananda, which requires mastery of thejhānas (states in meditation).[25][51] Many of his demonstrations of psychic powers are an indirect means of establishing the Buddha as a great teacher. People ask themselves, if the disciple has these powers, then how spiritually powerful will his teacher be?[69]
The account of Maudgalyāyana looking for his mother after her death is widespread. Apart from being used to illustrate the principles of karmic retribution and rebirth,[70][71] in China, the story developed a new emphasis. There Maudgalyāyana was known as "Mulian", and his story was taught in a mixture of religious instruction and entertainment, to remind people of their duties to deceased relatives.[72][73] Its earliest version being the SanskritUllambana Sutra,[74] the story has been made popular in China, Japan, and Korea through edifying folktales such as the Chinesebianwen (for example,The Transformation Text on Mu-lien Saving His Mother from the Dark Regions).[75][76] In most versions of the story, Maudgalyāyana uses his psychic powers to look for his deceased parents and see in what world they have been reborn. Although he can find his father in a heaven, he cannot find his mother and asks the Buddha for help. The Buddha brings him to his mother, who is located in a hell realm, but Maudgalyāyana cannot help her. The Buddha then advises him tomake merits on his mother's behalf, which helps her to be reborn in a better place.[76][77][78] In the Laotian version of the story, he travels to the world ofYama, the ruler of the underworld, only to find the world abandoned. Yama then tells Maudgalyāyana that he allows the denizens of the hell to go out of the gates of hell to be free for one day, that is, on the full moon day of the ninth lunar month. On this day, the hell beings can receivemerit transferred and be liberated from hell, if such merit is transferred to them.[79] In some other Chinese accounts, Maudgalyāyana finds his mother, reborn as ahungry ghost. When Maudgalyāyana tries to offer her food through anancestral shrine, the food bursts into flames each time. Maudgalyāyana therefore asks the Buddha for advice, who recommends him to make merit to the Saṃgha and transfer it to his mother. The transfer not only helps his mother to be reborn in heaven, but can also be used to help seven generations of parents and ancestors.[80][81] The offering was believed to be most effective when collectively done, which led to the arising of theghost festival.[82](see§ Heritage)
Several scholars have pointed out the similarities between the accounts of Maudgalyāyana helping his mother and the account ofPhra Malai, an influential legend in Thailand and Laos.[83][84] Indeed, in some traditional accounts Phra Malai is compared to Maudgalyāyana.[84] On a similar note, Maudgalyāyana's account is also thought to have influenced the Central AsianEpic of King Gesar, Maudgalyāyana being a model for the king.[85]
Another account involving Maudgalyayana, related in theChinese translation of theEkottara Agāma, in the ThaiJinakālamālī and the post-canonical Paññāsajātakā, was the production of what was described as the first Buddha image, the Udāyana Buddha. The account relates thatthe Buddha pays a visit to the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven (Pali:Tāvatiṃsa) to teach hismother.King Udāyana misses the Buddha so much that he asks Maudgalyāyana to use his psychic powers to transport thirty-two craftsmen to the heaven, and make an image of the Buddha there.[86][87] The image that is eventually made is from sandalwood, and many accounts have attempted to relate it to later Buddha images in other areas and countries.[88][89] Although the traditional accounts mentioned state that the Udāyana Buddha was the first image, there were probably several Buddha images preceding the Udāyana Buddha, made by both kings and commoners.[90] It could also be that these accounts originate from the same common narrative about a first Buddha image.[91]
According to the Pali tradition, Maudgalyāyana's death comes in November of the same year as theBuddha's passing, when Maudgalyāyana is traveling in Magadha. He dies at the age of eighty-four.[92] Some accounts put forth that rivaling traditions stone him to death, others say that those people hire robbers. ThePali tradition states thatJain monks persuade a group of robbers led by a Samaṇa-guttaka to kill Maudgalyāyana, out of jealousy for his success. Maudgalyāyana often teaches about the visits he has made toheaven and hell, the fruits of leading a moral life, and the dangers of leading an immoral life. These teachings make the number of followers from rivaling traditions decrease.[3][53] Whoever kills Maudgalyāyana, the general agreement among different accounts is that he is killed in a violent fashion at the Kālasilā Cave, on the Isigili Hill nearRājagaha,[2][53] which might be equated with modern Udaya Hill.[93]
At that time, Maudgalyāyana dwells alone in a forest hut. When he sees the bandits approaching, he makes himself vanish with psychic powers. The bandits find an empty hut, and although they search everywhere, they find nobody. They leave and return on the following day, for six consecutive days, with Maudgalyāyana escaping from them in the same way.[94][95] On the seventh day, Maudgalyāyana suddenly loses the psychic powers he has long wielded. Maudgalyāyana realizes that he is now unable to escape. The bandits enter, beat him repeatedly and leave him lying in his blood. Being keen on quickly getting their payment, they leave at once.[2][96] Maudgalyāyana's great physical and mental strength is such that he is able to regain consciousness and is able to journey to the Buddha.[2][69] In some accounts, he then returns to Kalasila and dies there, teaching his family before dying. In other accounts, he dies in the Buddha's presence.[25][97]
It is described that in a previous life, Maudgalyāyana is the only son born to his family. He is dutiful, and takes care of all the household duties. As his parents age, this increases his workload. His parents urge him to find a wife to help him, but he persistently refuses, insisting on doing the work himself. After persistent urging from his mother, he eventually marries.[98] His wife looks after his elderly parents, but after a short period becomes hostile to them. She complains to her husband, but he pays no attention to this. One day, when he is outside the house, she scatters rubbish around and when he returns, blames it on his blind parents. After continual complaints, he capitulates and agrees to deal with his parents. Telling his parents that their relatives in another region wish to see them, he leads his parents onto a carriage and begins driving the oxen cart through the forest. While in the depths of the forest, he dismounts and walks along with the carriage, telling his parents that he has to watch out for robbers, which are common in the area. He then impersonates the sounds and cries of thieves, pretending to attack the carriage. His parents tell him to fend for himself (as they are old and blind) and implore the imaginary thieves to leave their son. While they are crying out, the man beats and kills his parents, and throws their bodies into the forest before returning home.[98][99] In another version recorded in the commentary to the PaliJātaka, Maudgalyāyana does not carry the murder through though, touched by the words of his parents.[2][100]
After Maudgalyāyana's death, people ask why Maudgalyāyana had not protected himself, and why a great enlightened monk would suffer such a death. The Buddha then says that because Maudgalyāyana has contracted such karma in a previous life (the murder of one's own parents is one of the fiveheinous acts that reap the worst karma), so he could not avoid reaping the consequences. He therefore accepted the results.[101][25] Further, the Buddha states that even psychic powers will be of no use in avoiding karma, especially when it is serious karma.[92][25] Shortly after having left Maudgalyāyana for dead, the bandits are all executed. Religious Studies scholar James McDermott therefore concludes that there must have been "a confluence" of karma between Maudgalyāyana and the bandits, and cites the killing as evidence that in Buddhist doctrine the karma of different individuals can interact.[96] IndologistRichard Gombrich raises the example of the murder to prove another point: he points out that Maudgalyāyana is able to attain enlightenment, despite his heavy karma from a past life. This, he says, shows that the Buddha teaches everyone can attain enlightenment in the here and now, rather than enlightenment necessarilybeing a gradual process built up through many lifetimes.[102]
Gifford speculates that Maudgalyāyana believes he is experiencing heavy karma from a past life. This awareness leads him to want to prevent others from making the same mistakes and leading an unethical life. This may be the reason why he is so intent on teaching about the law of karmic retribution.[103]
After Maudgalyāyana's and Śāriputra's death, the Buddha states the monastic community has now become less, just like a healthy tree has some branches that have died off. Then he adds to that allimpermanent things must perish.[93] In some accounts of Maudgalyāyana's death, many of his students fall ill after his death, and die as well.[104]
In Buddhist history, Maudgalyāyana has been honored for several reasons. In some canons such as the Pali Tipiṭaka, Maudgalyāyana is held up by the Buddha as an example which monks should follow.[2][63] The Pali name Moggallāna was used as amonastic name by Buddhist monks up until the twelfth century C.E.[53]
In East Asia, Maudgalyāyana is honored as a symbol of filial piety and psychic powers.[106][107] Maudgalyāyana has had an important role in many Mahāyāna traditions. TheUllambana Sutra is the mainMahāyāna sūtra in which Maudgalyāyana's rescue of his mother is described(see§ Rescuing his mother).[59][108] Thesutra was highly influential, judging from the more than sixty commentaries that were written about it.[74] Although the original Sanskritsutra already encouragedfilial piety, later Chinese accounts inspired by thesutra emphasized this even more. Furthermore, Chinese accounts described merit-making practices and filial piety as two inseparable sides of the same coin.[109] Thesūtra became popular inChina,Japan, and Korea, and led to theYulan Hui (China) andObon (Japan) festivals.[110][75][111] This festival probably spread from China to Japan in the seventh century,[112] and similar festivals have been observed in India (Avalamba), Laos and Vietnam.[110][113] The festival is celebrated on the seventh lunar month (China; originally only on the full moon, on thePravāraṇa Day[114]), or from 13 to 15 July (Japan). It is believed that in this period ancestors reborn aspretas or hungry ghosts wander around.[110][105][115] In China, this was the time when the yearlyvarṣa for monastics came to an end (normally translated asrains retreat, but in China this was a Summer Retreat).[116] It was a time that the monastics completed their studies and meditation, which was celebrated.[117] Up until the present day, people make merits and transfer merit through several ceremonies during the festival, so the spirits may be reborn in a better rebirth.[105][115] The festival is also popular among non-Buddhists,[105] and has ledTaoists to integrate it in their own funeral services.[118][119]
The festival has striking similarities toConfucian andNeo-Confucian ideals, in that it deals with filial piety.[120] It has been observed that the account of rescuing the mother in hell has helped Buddhism to integrate into Chinese society. At the time, due to the Buddhist emphasis on the renunciant life, Buddhism was criticized by Confucianists. They felt Buddhism went against the principle of filial piety, because Buddhist monks did not have offspring to make offerings forancestor worship.[74][82] Maudgalyāyana's account helped greatly to improve this problem, and has therefore been raised as a textbook example of the adaptive qualities of Buddhism.[121] Other scholars have proposed, however, that the position of Buddhism in India versus China was not all that different, as Buddhism had to deal with the problem of filial piety and renunciation in India as well.[122] Another impact the story of Maudgalyāyana's had was that, in East Asia, the account helped to shift the emphasis of filial piety towards the mother, and helped redefine motherhood and femininity.[74]
Apart from the Ghost Festival, Maudgalyāyana also has an important role in the celebration ofMāgha Pūjā in Sri Lanka. On Māgha Pūjā, in Sri Lanka called Navam Full Moon Poya, Maudgalyāyana's appointment as a chief disciple of the Buddha is celebrated by various merit-making activities, and a pageant.[123][124]
There are several canonical and post-canonical texts that are traditionally connected to the person of Maudgalyāyana. In the Theravāda tradition, theVimānavatthu is understood to be a collection of accounts related by Maudgalyayana to the Buddha, dealing with his visits to heavens.[125] In theSarvāstivāda tradition, Maudgalyāyana is said to have composed theAbhidharma texts called theDharmaskandha and the Prajñāptibhāsya,[126][127] although in some Sanskrit and Tibetan scriptures the former is attributed to Śāriputra.[128] Scholars have their doubts on whether Maudgalyāyana was really the author of these works.[128] They do believe, however, that Maudgalyāyana and some other main disciples compiled lists (Sanskrit:mātṛkā,Pali:mātikā) of teachings asmnemonic devices. These lists formed the basis for what later became the Abhidharma.[129] Despite these associations with Abhidharma texts, pilgrim Xuan Zang reports that during his visits in India, Śāriputra was honored by monks for hisAbhidharma teachings, whereas Maudgalyāyana was honored for hismeditation, the basis for psychic powers.[130][131] French scholar André Migot has proposed that in most text traditions Maudgalyāyana was associated with meditation and psychic powers, as opposed to Śāriputra's specialization in wisdom and Abhidharma.[131][132]
Traditions have also connected Maudgalyāyana with the symbol of theWheel of Becoming (Sanskrit:bhavacakra,Pali:bhavacakka). Accounts in the MūlasarvāstivādaVinaya and theDivyāvadāna relate that Ānanda once told the Buddha about Maudgalyāyana's good qualities as a teacher. Maudgalyayana was a very popular teacher, and his sermons with regard to afterlife destinations were very popular. The Buddha said that in the future, a person like him would be hard to find. The Buddha then had an image painted on the gate of the Veluvaḷa monastery to honor Maudgalyāyana, depicting the Wheel of Becoming. This wheel showed thedifferent realms of the cycle of existence, thethree poisons in the mind (greed, hatred and delusion), and the teaching ofdependent origination. The wheel was depicted as being in the clutches of Māra, but at the same time included the symbol of a white circle forNirvana. The Buddha further decreed that a monk be stationed at the painting to explain the law of karma to visitors.[133][134][135] Images of the Wheel of Becoming are widespread in Buddhist Asia, some of which confirm and depict the original connection with Maudgalyāyana.[136]
Finally, there was also an entire tradition that traces its origins to Maudgalyayana, or to a follower of him, called Dharmagupta: this is theDharmaguptaka school, one of theearly Buddhist schools.[137][138]
A shaft was sunk in the centre of this Tope, and after a few hours' labour we came to a large slab upwards of 5 feet in length, lying in a direction from north to south. On raising this slab we saw two large stone boxes each bearing a short inscription on its lid. That to the south bore Sariputasa, "[relics] of SARIPUTRA"; that to the north bore Maha Mogalanasa, "[relics] of MAHA MOGALANA".
In a Pali Jātaka account, the Buddha is said to have had the ashes of Maudgalyāyana collected and kept in astūpa in the gateway of the Veluvaḷa.[2][140] In two other accounts, however, one from the Dharmaguptaka and the other from the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition,Anāthapiṇḍika and other laypeoplerequested the Buddha to build astūpa in honor of Maudgalyāyana.[141] According to the Divyāvadāna, emperorAshoka visited thestūpa and made anoffering, on the advice ofUpagupta Thera.[3] During the succeeding centuries, Xuan Zang and other Chinese pilgrims reported that astūpa with Maudgalyāyana's relics could be found under the Indian cityMathura, and in several other places in Northeast India. However, as of 1999,[update] none of these had been confirmed by archaeological findings.[142][143]
An important archaeological finding was made elsewhere, however. In the nineteenth century, archaeologistAlexander Cunningham and Lieutenant Fred. C. Maisey discovered bone fragments in caskets, with Maudgalyāyana's and Śāriputra's names inscribed on it, both in theSanchi Stūpa and at thestūpas at Satdhāra, India.[53][144] The caskets contained pieces of bone and objects of reverence, including sandalwood which Cunningham believed had once been used on the funeral pyre of Śāriputra.[145] The finding was important in several ways, and was dated from the context to the second century BCE.[146]
Initially, Cunningham and Maisey divided the shares of the discovered items and had them shipped to Britain. Since some of Cunningham's discovered items were lost when one ship sank, some scholars have understood that the Sanchi relics were lost.[147] However, in a 2007 study, the historian Torkel Brekke used extensive historical documents to argue that it was Maisey who took all the relics with him, not Cunningham. This would imply that the relics reached Britain in their entirety. After the relics reached Britain, they were given to theVictoria and Albert Museum in London in 1866.[148][note 6] When the relics were given to the V&A Museum, pressure from Buddhists to return the relics to their country of origin arose. Although at first the museum dismissed the complaints as coming from a marginal community of English Buddhists, when several Buddhist societies in India took notice, as well as societies in other Asian countries, it became a serious matter. Eventually, the museum was pressured by the British government to return the relics and their original caskets, for diplomatic reasons. After many requests and much correspondence, the museum had the relics brought back to the Sri Lankan Maha Bodhi Society in 1947.[151][152] They were formally re-installed into a shrine at Sanchi, India, in 1952, after it had been agreed that Buddhists would continue to be their caretaker, and a long series of ceremonies had been held to pay due respect. The relics were paraded through many countries in South and Southeast Asia, in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna countries.[153][152] At the same time, Indian Prime MinisterNehru used the opportunity to propagate a message of unity and religious tolerance, and from a political perspective,legitimate state power.[154] Indeed, even for other countries, such as Burma, in which the relics were shown, it helped to legitimate the government, create unity, and revive religious practice: "those tiny pieces of bone moved not only millions of devotees worldwide, but national governments as well", as stated by art historian Jack Daulton. For these reasons, Burma asked for a portion of the relics to keep there. In ceremonies attended by hundred of thousands people, the relics were installed in theKaba Aye Pagoda, in the same year as India.[155]
Sri Lanka also obtained a portion, kept at theMaha Bodhi Society, which is annually exhibited during a celebration in May.[156] In 2015, the Catholic world was surprised to witness that the Maha Bodhi Society broke with tradition by showing the relics toPope Francis on a day outside of the yearly festival. Responding to critics, the head of the society stated that no pope had set foot inside a Buddhist temple since 1984, and added that "religious leaders have to play a positive role to unite [their] communities instead of dividing".[157] As for the original Sanchi site in India, the relics are shown every year on the annual international Buddhist festival in November. As of 2016, the exhibition was visited by hundred thousands visitors from over the world, including Thai princessSirindhorn.[158][159]
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