Amatch is a tool for starting afire. Typically, matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiffpaper. One end is coated with a material that can be ignited byfriction generated by striking the match against a suitable surface.[1] Wooden matches are packaged inmatchboxes, and paper matches are partially cut into rows and stapled intomatchbooks. The coated end of a match, known as the match "head", consists of a bead of active ingredients andbinder, often colored for easier inspection. There are two main types of matches: safety matches, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface, and strike-anywhere matches, for which any suitably frictional surface can be used.
The wordmatch derives from Old Frenchmèche, referring to thewick of a candle.[2]Historically, the termmatch referred to lengths ofcord (latercambric) impregnated with chemicals, and allowed to burn continuously.[1] These were used to light fires and fireguns (seematchlock) andcannons (seelinstock)[3] and to detonateexplosive devices such asdynamite sticks. Such matches were characterised by their burning speed i.e.quick match andslow match. Depending on its formulation, a slow match burns at a rate of around 30 cm (1 ft) per hour and a quick match at 4 to 60 centimetres (2 to 24 in) per minute.
The modern equivalent of a match (in the sense of a burnable cord) is the simplefuse such as avisco fuse, still used inpyrotechnics to obtain a controlled time delay before ignition.[4] The original meaning of the word still persists in some pyrotechnics terms, such asblack match (ablack-powder-impregnated fuse) andBengal match (afirework akin tosparklers producing a relatively long-burning, colored flame). However, when friction matches became commonplace, the termmatch came to refer mainly to these.
A note in the textCho Keng Lu, written in 1366, describes asulfur match, small sticks of pinewood impregnated with sulfur, used in China by "impoverished court ladies" in 577 during the conquest ofNorthern Qi.[5] During theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960), a book called theRecords of the Unworldly and the Strange written by Chinese author Tao Gu in about 950 stated:
If there occurs an emergency at night it may take some time to make a light to light a lamp. But an ingenious man devised the system of impregnating little sticks of pinewood with sulfur and storing them ready for use. At the slightest touch of fire, they burst into flame. One gets a little flame like an ear of corn. This marvelous thing was formerly called a "light-bringing slave", but afterward when it became an article of commerce its name was changed to 'fire inch-stick'.[5]
Another text,Wu Lin Chiu Shih, dated from 1270, lists sulfur matches as something that was sold in the markets ofHangzhou, around the time ofMarco Polo's visit. The matches were known asfa chu ortshui erh.[5]
Before the use of matches, fires were sometimes lit using aburning glass (a lens) to focus the sun ontinder, a method that could only work on sunny days. Another more common method was igniting tinder with sparks produced by strikingflint and steel, or by sharply increasing air pressure in afire piston. Early work had been done by alchemistHennig Brand, who discovered the flammable nature of phosphorus in 1669.[6] Others, includingRobert Boyle and his assistant,Ambrose Godfrey, continued these experiments in the 1680s with phosphorus and sulfur, but their efforts did not produce practical and inexpensive methods for generating fires.[7]
A number of different ways were employed in order to light smoking tobacco: One was the use of a spill – a thin object something like a thin candle, a rolled paper or a straw, which would be lit from a nearby, already existing flame and then used to light the cigar or pipe – most often kept near the fireplace in aspill vase.[8] Another method saw the use of astriker, a tool that looked likescissors, but withflint on one "blade" andsteel on the other. These would then be rubbed together, ultimately producing sparks. If neither of these two was available, one could also use ember tongs to pick up a coal from a fire and light the tobacco directly.
The first modern, self-igniting match was invented in 1805 by Jean Chancel, assistant to ProfessorLouis Jacques Thénard ofParis. The head of the match consisted of a mixture ofpotassium chlorate,sulfur,gum arabic andsugar. The match was ignited by dipping its tip in a smallasbestos bottle filled withsulfuric acid.[4] This kind of match was quite expensive, however, and its use was also relatively dangerous, so Chancel's matches never really became widely adopted or in commonplace use.
This approach to match making was further refined in the following decades, culminating with the 'Promethean match' that was patented by Samuel Jones of London in 1828. His match consisted of a small glass capsule containing a chemical composition of sulfuric acid colored with indigo and coated on the exterior with potassium chlorate, all of which was wrapped up in rolls of paper. The immediate ignition of this particular form of a match was achieved by crushing the capsule with a pair of pliers, mixing and releasing the ingredients in order for it to become alight.
Sulfur-head matches, 1828, lit by dipping into a bottle of phosphorus
In London, similar matches meant for lighting cigars were introduced in 1849 by Heurtner who had a shop called the Lighthouse in the Strand. One version that he sold was called "Euperion" (sometimes "Empyrion") which was popular for kitchen use andnicknamed as "Hugh Perry", while another meant for outdoor use was called a "Vesuvian" or "flamer".[9] The head was large and containedniter,charcoal and wood dust, and had a phosphorus tip. The handle was large and made of hardwood so as to burn vigorously and last for a while. Some even had glass stems.[10] Both Vesuvians and Prometheans had a bulb of sulfuric acid at the tip which had to be broken to start the reaction.[11]
Samuel Jones introducedfuzees for lighting cigars and pipes in 1832. A similar invention was patented in 1839 by John Hucks Stevens in America.[12]
In 1832, William Newton patented the "wax vesta" in England. It consisted of a wax stem that embedded cotton threads and had a tip of phosphorus. Variants known as "candle matches" were made by Savaresse and Merckel in 1836.[10] John Hucks Stevens also patented a safety version of the friction match in 1839.[13]
Atin "Congreves" matchbox (1827), produced byJohn Walker, inventor of the friction match.
Chemical matches were unable to make the leap into mass production, due to the expense, their cumbersome nature, and the inherent danger of using them. An alternative method was to produce the ignition through friction produced by rubbing two rough surfaces together. An early example was made by François Derosne in 1816. His crude match was called abriquet phosphorique and it used a sulfur-tipped match to scrape inside a tube coated internally with phosphorus. It was both inconvenient and unsafe.[14][15]
The first successful friction match was invented in 1826 byJohn Walker, an English chemist and druggist fromStockton-on-Tees, County Durham. He developed a keen interest in trying to find a means of obtaining fire easily. Several chemical mixtures were already known that would ignite by a sudden explosion, but it had not been found possible to transmit the flame to a slow-burning substance like wood. While Walker was preparing a lighting mixture on one occasion, a match that had been dipped in it took fire by an accidental friction upon the hearth. He at once appreciated the practical value of the discovery, and started making friction matches. They consisted of wooden splints or sticks of cardboard coated withsulfur and tipped with a mixture ofsulfide of antimony,chlorate of potash, andgum. The treatment with sulfur helped the splints to catch fire, and the odor was improved by the addition of camphor.[6] The price of a box of 50 matches was oneshilling. With each box was supplied a piece of sandpaper, folded double, through which the match had to be drawn to ignite it. Walker did not name the matches "Congreves" in honour of the inventor androcket pioneerSir William Congreve, as it is sometimes stated. Thecongreves were the invention of Charles Sauria, a French chemistry student at the time.[16][17] Walker did not divulge the exact composition of his matches.[18] Between 1827 and 1829, Walker made about 168 sales of his matches. It was, however, dangerous and flaming balls sometimes fell to the floor, burning carpets and dresses, leading to their ban in France and Germany.[11] Walker either refused or neglected to patent his invention.[6][19]
In 1829, Scots inventorSir Isaac Holden invented an improved version of Walker's match and demonstrated it to his class at Castle Academy inReading, Berkshire. Holden did not patent his invention and claimed that one of his pupils wrote to his father Samuel Jones, a chemist in London who commercialised his process.[20] A version of Holden's match was patented by Samuel Jones, and these were sold aslucifer matches. These early matches had a number of problems – an initial violent reaction, an unsteady flame, and unpleasant odor and fumes. Lucifers could ignite explosively, sometimes throwing sparks a considerable distance. Lucifers were manufactured in the United States by Ezekial Byam.[6]
The term "lucifer" persisted asslang for a match into the 20th century. For example, the song "Pack Up Your Troubles" includes the line "while you’ve a lucifer to light your fag". Matches are still called "lucifers" inDutch.
Lucifers were quickly replaced after 1830 by matches made according to the process devised by FrenchmanCharles Sauria, who substitutedwhite phosphorus for the antimony sulfide.[21] These new phosphorus matches had to be kept in airtight metal boxes but became popular and went by the name ofloco foco ("crazy fire") in the United States, from which was derived the name of apolitical party.[22] The earliest American patent for the phosphorus friction match was granted in 1836 to Alonzo Dwight Phillips ofSpringfield, Massachusetts.[23]
From 1830 to 1890, the composition of these matches remained largely unchanged, although some improvements were made. In 1843 William Ashgard replaced the sulfur with beeswax, reducing the pungency of the fumes. This was replaced byparaffin in 1862 by Charles W. Smith, resulting in what were called "parlor matches". From 1870 the end of the splint was fireproofed by impregnation with fire-retardant chemicals such as alum, sodium silicate, and other salts resulting in what was commonly called a "drunkard's match" that prevented the accidental burning of the user's fingers. Other advances were made for the mass manufacture of matches. Early matches were made from blocks of woods with cuts separating the splints but leaving their bases attached. Later versions were made in the form of thin combs. The splints would be broken away from the comb when required.[10]
A noiseless match was invented in 1836 by the HungarianJános Irinyi, who was a student of chemistry.[24] An unsuccessful experiment by his professor, Meissner, gave Irinyi the idea to replace potassium chlorate withlead dioxide[25] in the head of the phosphorus match.[24] He liquefied phosphorus in warm water and shook it in a glass vial, until the two liquidsemulsified. He mixed the phosphorus with lead dioxide andgum arabic, poured the paste-like mass into a jar, and dipped the pine sticks into the mixture and let them dry. When he tried them that evening, all of them lit evenly. He sold the invention and production rights for thesenoiseless matches to István Rómer, a Hungarian pharmacist living inVienna, for 60florins (about 22.5 oz t of silver). As a match manufacturer, Rómer became rich, and Irinyi went on to publish articles and a textbook on chemistry, and founded several match factories.[24]
Those involved in the manufacture of the new phosphorus matches were afflicted withphossy jaw and other bone disorders,[26] and there was enough white phosphorus in one pack to kill a person. Deaths and suicides from eating the heads of matches became frequent. The earliest report of phosphorus necrosis was made in 1845 by Lorinser in Vienna, and a New York surgeon published a pamphlet with notes on nine cases.[27][28]
The conditions of working-class women at theBryant & May factories led to theLondon matchgirls strike of 1888. The strike was focused on the severe health complications of working withwhite phosphorus, such asphossy jaw.[29] Social activistAnnie Besant published an article in her halfpenny weekly paperThe Link on 23 June 1888.[30] A strike fund was set up and some newspapers collected donations from readers. The women and girls also solicited contributions. Members of theFabian Society, includingGeorge Bernard Shaw,Sidney Webb, andGraham Wallas, were involved in the distribution of the cash collected.[31] The strike and negative publicity led to changes being made to limit the health effects of the inhalation of white phosphorus.
Attempts were made to reduce the ill-effects on workers through the introduction of inspections and regulations.Anton Schrötter von Kristelli discovered in 1850 that heating white phosphorus at 250 °C in an inert atmosphere produced a red allotropic form, which did not fume in contact with air. It was suggested that this would make a suitable substitute in match manufacture although it was slightly more expensive.[32] Two French chemists, Henri Savene and Emile David Cahen, proved in 1898 that the addition ofphosphorus sesquisulfide meant that the substance was not poisonous, that it could be used in a "strike-anywhere" match, and that the match heads were not explosive.[33]
British companyAlbright and Wilson was the first company to produce phosphorus sesquisulfide matches commercially. The company developed a safe means of making commercial quantities of phosphorus sesquisulfide in 1899 and started selling it to match manufacturers.[34][35] However, white phosphorus continued to be used, and its serious effects led many countries to ban its use. Finland prohibited the use of white phosphorus in 1872, followed by Denmark in 1874, France in 1897, Switzerland in 1898, and the Netherlands in 1901.[27] An agreement, theBerne Convention, was reached at Bern, Switzerland, in September 1906, which banned the use of white phosphorus in matches.[36] This required each country to pass laws prohibiting the use of white phosphorus in matches. The United Kingdom passed a law in 1908 prohibiting its use in matches after 31 December 1910. The United States did not pass a law, but instead placed a "punitive tax" in 1913 on white phosphorus–based matches, one so high as to render their manufacture financially impractical, and Canada banned them in 1914.[37] India and Japan banned them in 1919; China followed, banning them in 1925.
In 1901 Albright and Wilson started making phosphorus sesquisulfide at theirNiagara Falls, New York plant for the US market, but American manufacturers continued to use white phosphorus matches.[33] The Niagara Falls plant made them until 1910, when theUnited States Congress forbade the shipment of white phosphorus matches in interstate commerce.[34]
The dangers of white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches led to the development of the "hygienic" or "safety match". The major innovation in its development was the use ofred phosphorus, not on the head of the match but instead on a specially designed striking surface.
Arthur Albright developed the industrial process for large-scale manufacture of red phosphorus after Schrötter's discoveries became known. By 1851, his company was producing the substance by heating white phosphorus in a sealed pot at a specific temperature. He exhibited his red phosphorus in 1851, atThe Great Exhibition held atThe Crystal Palace in London.
The idea of creating a specially designed striking surface was developed in 1844 by theSwedeGustaf Erik Pasch. Pasch patented the use of red phosphorus in the striking surface. He found that this could ignite heads that did not need to contain white phosphorus.Johan Edvard Lundström and his younger brother Carl Frans Lundström (1823–1917) started a large-scale match industry inJönköping, Sweden around 1847, but the improved safety match was not introduced until around 1850–55. The Lundström brothers had obtained a sample of red phosphorus matches from Albright at The Great Exhibition,[38] but had misplaced it and therefore they did not try the matches until just before theParis Exhibition of 1855 when they found that the matches were still usable.[38] In 1858 their company produced around 12 million matchboxes.[35]
The safety oftrue "safety matches" is derived from the separation of the reactive ingredients between a match head on the end of aparaffin-impregnated splint and the special striking surface (in addition to the safety aspect of replacing the white phosphorus withred phosphorus). The idea for separating the chemicals had been introduced in 1859 in the form of two-headed matches known in France asAllumettes Androgynes. These were sticks with one end made of potassium chlorate and the other of red phosphorus. They had to be broken and the heads rubbed together.[35] There was, however, a risk of the heads rubbing each other accidentally in their box. Such dangers were removed when the striking surface was moved to the outside of the box. The development of a specializedmatchbook with both matches and a striking surface occurred in the 1890s with the AmericanJoshua Pusey, who sold his patent to theDiamond Match Company.
A match at the beginning of the combustion process
The striking surface on modern matchboxes is typically composed of 25% powderedglass or other abrasive material, 50%red phosphorus, 5% neutralizer, 4%carbon black, and 16% binder; and the match head is typically composed of 45–55%potassium chlorate, with a little sulfur and starch, a neutralizer (ZnO orCaCO 3), 20–40% ofsiliceous filler,diatomite, and glue.[39] Safety matches ignite due to the extreme reactivity of phosphorus with the potassium chlorate in the match head. When the match is struck, the phosphorus and chlorate mix in a small amount and form something akin to the explosiveArmstrong's mixture, which ignites due to the friction. The red color of the matchhead is due to addition ofred dyes, not the red phosphorus content.[40]
The Swedes long held a virtual worldwidemonopoly on safety matches, with the industry mainly situated in Jönköping, by 1903 calledJönköpings & Vulcans Tändsticksfabriks AB todaySwedish Match.[41] In France, they sold the rights to their safety matchpatent to Coigent Père & Fils ofLyon, but Coigent contested the payment in the French courts, on the basis that the invention was known inVienna before the Lundström brothers patented it.[41] The British match manufacturerBryant and May visited Jönköping in 1858 to try to obtain a supply of safety matches, but was unsuccessful. In 1862 it establishedits own factory and bought the rights for the British safety match patent from the Lundström brothers.[41]
Friction matches made withwhite phosphorus as well as those made fromphosphorus sesquisulfide can be struck on any suitable surface. They have remained particularly popular in the United States, even when safety matches had become common in Europe, and are still widely used today around the world, including in manydeveloping countries,[35] for such uses as camping, outdoor activities, emergency/survival situations, and stocking homemadesurvival kits.[42][43] However, strike-anywhere matches are banned on all kinds of aircraft under the "dangerous goods" classificationU.N. 1331, Matches, strike-anywhere.[44]
Safety matches are classified asdangerous goods, "U.N. 1944, Matches, safety". They are not universally forbidden onaircraft; however, they must be declared as dangerous goods and individual airlines or countries may impose tighter restrictions.[44]
Storm matches, also known aslifeboat matches or flare matches, are often included insurvival kits. They have a strikeable tip similar to a normal match, but the combustible compound – including an oxidiser – continues down the length of the stick, coating half or more of the entire matchstick. The match also has a waterproof coating (which often makes the match more difficult to light), and often storm matches are longer than standard matches. As a result of the combustible coating, storm matches burn strongly even in strong winds, and can even spontaneously re-ignite after being briefly immersed in water.
^Wisniak, Jaime (2005)."Matches—The manufacture of fire"(PDF).Indian Journal of Chemical Technology.12:369–380. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 November 2013. Retrieved14 November 2011.
^John Wesley Hanson (1900)Wonders of the nineteenth century: a panoramic review of the inventions and discoveries of the past hundred years, W. B. Conkey Publishers, Chicago
^Charnovitz, Steve (1987). "The Influence of International Labour Standards on the World Trading Regime. A Historical Overview".International Labour Review.126 (5): 565, 571.
^abIATA (2007).Dangerous Goods Regulations: Effective 1 January – 31 December 2007. Produced in consultation withICAO. Montreal: International Air Transport Association.ISBN978-92-9195-780-4.
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