The markhor is thenational animal of Pakistan, where it is also known as thescrew-horn orscrew-horned goat. The word "markhor" is derived from the Persian wordmarkhar, meaning "curly" because of its curly horns. This comes from bothPashto and mainly classicalPersian languages, referencing the ancient belief that the markhor would actively kill and consume snakes.[3]
Markhor adults stand 65 to 115 cm (26 to 45 in) at the shoulder, are 132 to 186 cm (52 to 73 in) long and weigh from 32 to 110 kg (71 to 243 lb).[4] They have the highest maximum shoulder height among the species in the genusCapra, but is surpassed in length and weight by theSiberian ibex.[5] The coat is of a grizzled, light brown to black colour, and is smooth and short insummer, while growing longer and thicker inwinter. The fur of the lower legs is black and white. Markhor aresexually dimorphic, with males having longer hair on the chin, throat, chest, and shanks.[4] Females are redder in colour, with shorter hair and a short, black beard, and are maneless.[6] Both sexes have tightly curled, corkscrew-like horns, which close together at the head, but spread upwards toward the tips. The horns of males can grow up to 160 cm (63 in) long, and up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in females.[4][7]
The markhor is adapted to mountainous terrain and lives at elevations of 600 to 3,600 m (2,000 to 11,800 ft). It inhabitsshrub forests made up primarily ofoaks (Quercus ilex),pines (Pinus gerardiana), andjunipers (Juniperus macropoda).[2]
In Central Asia, the Bukharan markhor formerly lived in most of the mountains stretching along the north banks of the UpperAmu Darya and thePanj Rivers fromTurkmenistan to Tajikistan; two to three scattered populations now occur in a greatly reduced distribution. It is limited to the region between lower Pyanj and theVakhsh Rivers nearKulyab in Tajikistan, and in the Kugitangtau Range in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.[2]
In Afghanistan, the markhor is limited to the east in the high and mountainous monsoon forests ofLaghman andNuristan. Until 1978, it survived in the country only in theKabul Gorge and theKohe Safi area ofKapissa, and in some isolated pockets in between. It now lives the most inaccessible regions of its once wider range in the mountains of Kapissa andKabul Provinces, after having been driven from its original habitat by intensive poaching.[2]
InPakistan, it is restricted to theIndus River andKunar River and their tributaries; its present range consists of many small, isolated areas inBaluchistan,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa andDera Ghazi Khan District. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot inKohistan District upstream to near the Tungas village inBaltistan, with Gakuch being its western limit up theGilgit River, Chalt up theHunza River, and the Parishing Valley up theAstore River. It occurs also aroundChitral and the border areas with Afghanistan, where it inhabits a number of valleys along the Kunar River from Arandu on the west bank andDrosh on the east bank, up to Shoghor along the Lutkho River, and as far as Barenis along theMastuj River. The largest population currently lives inChitral National Park in Pakistan.[2]
In India, the markhor is restricted to a portion of thePir Panjal range in southwesternJammu and Kashmir. Throughout this range, markhor populations are scattered, starting east of theBanihal Pass about 50 km (31 mi) from theChenab River on the Jammu–Srinagar highway westward to the disputed border with Pakistan. It still occurs in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora Rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division and aroundShupiyan to the south of Srinagar.[2]
The markhor isdiurnal and mainly active in the early morning and late afternoon. Its diets shift seasonally; in the spring and summer, itgrazes, but turns tobrowsing in winter, sometimes standing on its hind legs to reach high branches. Themating season is during winter, when males fight each other by lunging, locking ofhorns, and attempting to push each other off balance. Thegestation period lasts 135–170 days, and usually results in the birth of one or two kids, and occasionally three. Markhor live in herds, usually numbering nine animals, composed of adult females and their young. Adult males are largely solitary. Adult females and kids comprise most of the markhor population, with adult females making up 32% and kids making up 31%. Adult males comprise 19% of the population, while subadults (males aged 2–3 years) make up 12%, and yearlings (females aged 12–24 months) 9%.[8] Their alarm call closely resembles the bleating of domestic goats.[4] Early in the season, the males and females may be found together on the open, grassy patches and clear slopes among the forest. During the summer, the males remain in the forest, while the females generally climb to the highest rocky ridges above.[6]
In the spring, the females stay closer to cliffs in areas with more rock coverage to provide protection for their offspring. The males stay in higher elevated areas with more access to vegetation for foraging so as to improve their body condition.[9]
Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx),snow leopard (Panthera uncia),Himalayan wolf (Canis lupus chanco), andbrown bear (Ursus arctos) are the main predators of the markhor.[8][10] Thegolden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) has been reported to prey upon young markhor. The markhor possess keen eyesight and a strong sense of smell to detect nearbypredators. Markhor are very aware of their surroundings and on high alert; in exposed areas, they are quick to spot and flee from predators.[11]
Astor markhor (C. f. falconeri,Wagner, 1839) has large, flat horns, branching widely and then going up nearly straight with only a half turn.[13] It is consideredsynonymous with the Kashmir markhorCapra falconeri cashmiriensis.[2]
Kabul markhor (C. f. megaceros,Hutton, 1842) has horns with a slight corkscrew, as well as a twist.[6] Ajunior synonym isC. f. jerdoni.[2]
Some authors have postulated that the markhor is the ancestor of some breeds of thedomestic goat. TheAngora goat has been regarded by some as a direct descendant of the Central Asian markhor.[14][15]Evidence for markhors crossbreeding with domestic goats has been found. One study suggested that 35.7% of captive markhors in the analysis from three different zoos had mitochondrial DNA from domestic goats.[16] Other authors have suggested that markhor may have been the ancestor of some Egyptian goat breeds, based on their similar horns, though the lack of an anterior keel on the horns of the markhor belies any close relationship.[17]TheChangthangi domestic goat ofLadakh andTibet may derive from the markhor.[18] TheGirgentana goat ofSicily is thought to have been bred from markhor,[19] as is theBilberry goat ofIreland.[20] The Kashmiriferal herd of about 200 individuals on theGreat Ormelimestoneheadland ofWales are derived from a herd maintained atWindsor Great Park belonging toQueen Victoria.[21]
Fecal samples taken from markhor and domestic goats indicate that a serious level of competition exists for food between the two species. The competition for food between herbivores is believed to have significantly reduced the standing crop of forage in the Himalaya–Karkoram–Hindukush ranges. Domestic livestock have an advantage over wild herbivores, since the density of their herds often pushes their competitors out of the best grazing areas, and decreased forage availability has a negative effect on female fertility.[22]
Genetic studies suggest that the markhor diverged early from otherCapra species, making it one of the most evolutionary distinct wild goats.Capra falconeri forms a well-supported clade, meaning it is genetically distinct and monophyletic descended from a common ancestor not shared with other species in the genus.[23]
Hunting for meat as a means of subsistence or trade in wildlife parts adds to the growing problem for wildlife managers in many countries.Poaching, with its indirect impacts as disturbance, increasing fleeing distances and resulting reduction of effective habitat size, is by far the most important factor threatening the survival of the markhor populations.[24] The most important types of poachers seem to be local inhabitants, state border guards, the latter usually relying on local hunting guides, and Afghans, illegally crossing the border. Poaching causes fragmentation of the population into small islands, where the remaining subpopulations are prone to extinction.[24] The markhor is a valued trophy hunting prize for its spiral horns. The Pakistani government issued several tags in an attempt to save the species, which since the introduction of hunting, the species has seen a remarkable rebound. The continuing declines of markhor populations finally caught the attention of the international community.[25]
InBritish India, the markhor was considered to be among the most challenging game species, because of the danger involved in stalking and pursuing it in mountainous terrain.[26] According to Arthur Brinckman in hisThe Rifle in Cashmere, "a man who is a good walker will never wish for any finer sport thanibex or markhoor shooting".[27]Elliott Roosevelt I wrote of how he shot two markhor in 1881, his first on 8 July, his second on 1 August.[28]
Although hunting markhor in Afghanistan is illegal, it has been traditionally hunted inNuristan andLaghman Provinces, and this may have intensified during theWar in Afghanistan. In Pakistan, hunting markhor is legal as part of a conservation process; expensive hunting licenses are available from the Pakistani government that allow the hunting of old markhors, which are no longer good for breeding purposes.[29] In India, hunting markhor is illegal, but it is poached for food and for its horns, which are thought to have medicinal properties.[2]
The markhor is listed asnear threatened on theIUCN Red List; as of 2013, the population was estimated at 5,800 individuals that was projected to be stable in view of ongoing conservation efforts.[2]
In India, the markhor is a fully protected Schedule I species under the Jammu and Kashmir's Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1978.[2]In 1973, two reserves were established in Tajikistan: Dashtijum Strict Reserve with 20,000 ha (49,000 acres) and Dashtijum Reserve with 53,000 ha (130,000 acres). Though these reserves exist to protect and conserve the markhor population, the regulations are poorly enforced, making poaching common, as ishabitat destruction.[2][8] Although markhors still face ongoing threats, recent studies have shown considerable success regarding the conservation approach that began in the 1900s, when a local hunter was persuaded by a hunting tourist to stop poaching markhors. The local hunter established a conservancy that inspired two other local organizations called Morkhur and Muhofiz. These organizations expect that their efforts will not only protect the markhor but also allow for the sustainable exploitation of the species. This approach has proven to be more effective than the protection of lands that lack enforcement and security.[8]
The name is thought to be derived fromPersian language — a conjunction ofmâr (مار, "snake,serpent") and the suffixkhor (خور, "-eater"), interpreted to represent the animal's alleged ability to kill snakes, or as a reference to its corkscrew-like horns, which are somewhat reminiscent of coiling snakes.[4]
In folklore, the markhor is believed to kill and eat serpents. Thereafter, while chewing thecud, a foam-like substance comes out of its mouth that drops on the ground and dries. This foam-like substance is sought after by the local people, who believe it is useful in extracting the poison from snakebites.[34]
^Sharma, S. D. (1990).Semantics and Syntax: Indian Loan Words in English: a Linguistic, Cultural, Literary & Historical Study. Prakash Book Depot. p. 83.
^abcSterndale, R. A. (1884)."Capra megaceros The Markhor".Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink, and Co. pp. 441–444.
^Markham, F. (1854).Shooting in the Himalayas: a journal of sporting adventures and travel in Chinese Tartary, Ladac, Thibet, Cashmere, &c. R. Bentley.
^Hammer, S. (2008). "Evidence for introgressive hybridization of captive markhor (Capra falconeri) with domestic goat: cautions for reintroduction".Biochemical Genetics.46 (3/4):216–226.doi:10.1007/s10528-008-9145-y.PMID18228130.S2CID7408515.
^Menrad, M.; Stier, C.-H.; Geldermann, H.; Gall, C.F. (2002). "A study on the Changthangi pashmina and the Bakerwali goat breeds in Kashmir: I. Analysis of blood protein polymorphisms and genetic variability within and between the populations".Small Ruminant Research.43 (1):3–14.doi:10.1016/S0921-4488(01)00265-6.
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