Maritime history dates back thousands of years. The first prehistoric boats are presumed to have beendugout canoes which were developed independently by variousStone Age populations around 10,000 years ago, with theoldest surviving boat being thePesse canoe. Inancient history, various vessels were used for coastal fishing and travel.[1][obsolete source] Some evidence suggests that humans may have crossed the sea as early as 700,000 years ago.
In ancient maritime history,[2] evidence of maritime trade between civilizations dates back at least five millennia.Egyptians had trade routes through theRed Sea, importing spices from the "Land of Punt" and from Arabia,[3][4] and theSumerians traded with theIndus Valley civilization around the same time. By the time ofJulius Caesar of theRoman Empire, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended uponwater transport through the sea around the rough inlandterrain features to its north. The search for the source of spices in these maritime trade routes later led to theAge of Discovery.
The earliest seafaring is presumed to have developed in the "nursery" areas ofIsland Southeast Asia (ISEA) and theMediterranean. Both ISEA and the Mediterranean had a warm climate and, particularly in the former, large numbers of intervisible islands; both assisted early seafarers.[5][6] Water transport also developed on major rivers, such as theNile.
The first watercraft are likely to have beenrafts, as these make less demands on the woodworking skills of pre-neolithic builders. Rafts or hide-covered boats (e.g.coracle) have a low probability of surviving in an archaeological site; there are historical instances of rafts being dismantled after use and the components being used for other purposes, further reducing the chances of archaeological survival. Therefore, maritime transport has to be inferred from evidence such as human migration which cannot have been carried out by land, even in cases of lowered sea levels due toextensive glaciation. Other presumed evidence of water transport has proved problematical. Excavated bones of pelagic fish species (such astuna) have been erroneously interpreted as demonstrating deep-sea fishing. Prior to fish stocks being reduced by commercial fishing, these species have been readily caught where deep water exists close to the shoreline.[6]
The invention (or adoption) of the sail is believed to have happened quite late in the prehistory of maritime transport, coinciding with other changes in the process of neolithicisation. Iconographic evidence of sail in Egypt dates to the late fourth millennium BC, and there is suggestive evidence in the eastern Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf in the late third millennium BC. These advances in water transport are broadly contemporaneous with wheeled transport pulled by draught animals (examplesc. 3000-2000 BC). The invention of new forms of transport technology, both at sea and on land, have posed questions about relationships between the processes that have come into play with each development.[7]
Whilst the invention of the sail may appear obvious to a modern seafarer, its introduction and then spread into other regions (or the independent invention in those regions) happened slowly. From the eastern Mediterranean and Red Sea/Persian Gulfc. 2500 BC, expansion into the central Mediterranean and the west coast of India happenedc. 2000 BC. Eastward spread into the Bay of Bengal and Island Southeast Asia has been dated toc. 1000 BC, with spread into the western Mediterranean at about the same time. Northern Europe, excluding Nordic countries, has evidence of sail use from the early years AD, whilst Scandinavia appears not to have used sails until late in the first millennium AD. Sailing was not used in the Caribbean until the arrival of Columbus' ships in 1492.[8]
Whether the sail was invented on different occasions in different places is difficult to assess, with diffusionist theories falling in and out of fashion. One instance of independent invention may be in the region of the Guayaquil river in modern Ecuador.[9] Sails of a relatively unique design were being used when Europeans first arrived in the area in the 16th century. The geography of the Guayaquil river is reminiscent of that of the Nile, with the prevailing wind going in the opposite direction to the flow of the river. This allows drifting downstream and sailing upstream: a suitable situation to encourage invention of sailing.[10]
The lowered sea levels of thePleistocene made some of themodern-day islands ofSundaland accessible via land bridges. However, the spread ofanatomically modern humans across theWallace line and intoSahul necessitated crossing bodies of water. Remains of stone tools and marine shells in Liang Sarru,Salibabu Island, North Sulawesi, dated to 32,000–35,000 years ago, is possible evidence for the longest sea voyage by Paleolithic humans ever recorded. The island was previously uninhabited by humans orhominins and can only be reached from eitherMindanao or theSangihe Islands by crossing an expanse of water at least 100 km (62 mi) wide, even during the low sea levels of the Pleistocene. Other evidence of early maritime transport are the appearance ofobsidian tools with the same source on neighboring islands. These include the Philippine obsidian network (Mindoro andPalawan,c. 33,000-28,000 BP), and theWallacea obsidian network (Timor,Atauro,Kisar,Alor,c. 22,000 BP). However, the method of crossing remains unknown and could have ranged from simplerafts todugout canoes by the terminal Pleistocene.[11][12][13]
The sea crossing by humans to theSahul landmass (modernAustralia andNew Guinea) from theSundaland peninsula occurred around 53,000 to 65,000 years ago. Even with the lower sea level of that time, this crossing would have involved travelling out of sight of land – the overall distances involved at the possible crossing points are all over 55 miles. It is likely that large bamboo rafts were used, possibly with a sail of some sort. Up until 58,000 BP, the winds during the Northern Australian wet season were particularly favourable for making this crossing (relevant even without sails). The reduction in favourable winds after that date fits well with the single colonisation phase of Australia during prehistory.[14]: 26–29 [15][16]
In thehistory of whaling, humans are believed to have begun whaling in Korea at least 6000 BC.[17] The oldest known method of catchingwhales is to simply drive them ashore by placing a number of small boats between the whale and the open sea and attempting to frighten them with noise, activity, and perhaps small, non-lethal weapons such as arrows.[18]
Austronesians used distinctive sailing technologies, namely thecatamaran, theoutrigger ship,tanja sail and thecrab claw sail. This allowed them to colonize a large part of theIndo-Pacific region during theAustronesian expansion starting at around 3000 to 1500 BC, and ending with the colonization ofEaster Island andNew Zealand in the 10th to 13th centuries AD.[19][failed verification][20] Prior to the 16th centuryColonial Era, Austronesians were the most widespread ethnolinguistic group, spanning half the planet from Easter Island in the easternPacific Ocean toMadagascar in the westernIndian Ocean.[21][22] They also established vast maritime trading networks, among which is theNeolithic precursor to what would become theMaritime Silk Road.[23][failed verification]
The acquisition of thecatamaran and outrigger boat technology by the non-Austronesian peoples in Sri Lanka and southern India is the result of Austronesian contact with the region, including theMaldives andLaccadive Islands. This is estimated to have occurred around 1000 to 600 BC and onwards, and led to the development of India and Sri Lanka's own maritime trade networks. This may have possibly included limited colonization that have since been assimilated. This is still evident in Sri Lankan and South Indian languages. For example,Tamilpaṭavu,Telugupaḍava, andKannadapaḍahu, all meaning "ship", are all derived fromProto-Hesperonesian*padaw, "sailboat", with Austronesian cognates likeJavaneseperahu,Kadazanpadau,Maranaopadaw,Cebuanoparáw,Samoanfolau,Hawaiianhalau, andMāoriwharau.[20]
Similarly the first encounter with large sea-going ships by theChinese is through trade with Southeast Asian Austronesian ships (likelyJavanese orSumatran) during theHan dynasty (220 BC–200 AD) as recorded by the Chinese historian Wan Chen (萬震) in his 3rd century AD book "Strange Things of the South" (Nánzhōu Yìwùzhì – 南州異物志). This led to the development of China's own maritime technologies later on, during theSong dynasty in the 10th to 13th century AD.[24][25]: 38–42
At the furthest extents of the Austronesian expansion, colonists fromBorneo crossed theIndian Ocean westward to settle inMadagascar and theComoros by around 500 AD.[26][failed verification][27]
In the east, the first true ocean voyage was the colonization of theNorthern Marianas Islands ofMicronesia from thePhilippines. This was followed by more migrations southwards and eastwards toIsland Melanesia up to islands beyond the inter-island visibility range likeTonga andSamoa. This region was occupied by the AustronesianLapita culture. After a gap of about two thousand years, the firstPolynesians continued spreading eastwards into theCook Islands,French Polynesia,Hawaii,Easter Island, and Aotearoa,New Zealand by around AD 700 to 1200.[22][28][29]
Austronesian seafarers used environmental navigation systems: orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using anastronomy technique called "star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determined the course of the ship to the destination by recognising the rising and setting positions of certain stars on the horizon.[30]: 10 [31]
Māori people of New Zealand are said to have Navigated following the zodiacal constellation of Scorpio, between Libra and Sagittarius in the southern sky positioned at about 16 hours 30 minutes right ascension and 30° south declination to find, Aotearoa, "The Land of the Long, White, Cloud".
Ancient maritime routes usually began in theFar East or down river fromMadhya Pradesh withtransshipment via historicBharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today'sIran then split aroundHadhramaut into two streams north into theGulf of Aden and thence into theLevant, or south intoAlexandria viaRed Sea ports such asAxum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates.[32][better source needed]
Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the utilization of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as theArabian Sea and theBay of Bengal.[33][failed verification]South Asia had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it toSoutheast Asia, thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult.[33][failed verification] Indian traders had a choice of routes to Southeast Asian states, so protecting them from one power controlling trade that went through their territory.[33] By making use of the maritime trade routes,bulk commodity trade became possible for theRomans in the 2nd century BC.[34] A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month atone-sixtieth the cost ofover-land routes.[35]
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TheAncient Egyptians had knowledge ofsail construction.[36]
The first warships ofAncient Egypt were constructed during the earlyMiddle Kingdom, and perhaps – at the end of theOld Kingdom, but the first mention and a detailed description of a large enough and heavily armed ship dates from 16th century BC."And I ordered to build twelve warships with rams, dedicated toAmun orSobek, orMaat andSekhmet, whose image was crowned best bronze noses. Carport and equipped outside rook over the waters, for many paddlers, having covered rowers deck not only from the side, but and top. and they were on board eighteen oars in two rows on the top and sat on two rowers, and the lower – one, a hundred and eight rowers were. And twelve rowers aft worked on three steering oars. And blocked Our Majesty ship inside three partitions (bulkheads) so as not to drown it by ramming the wicked, and the sailors had time to repair the hole. And Our Majesty arranged four towers for archers – two behind, and two on the nose and one above the other small – on the mast with narrow loopholes. they are covered withbronze in the fifth finger (3.2mm), as well as a canopy roof and its rowers. and they have (carried) on the nose three assault heavy crossbow arrows so they lit resin or oil with a salt of Seth (probably nitrate) tore a special blend and punched (?) lead ball with a lot of holes (?), and one of the same at the stern. and long ship seventy five cubits (41m), and the breadth sixteen, and in battle can go three-quarters of iteru per hour (about 6.5 knots)..." The text of the tomb ofAmenhotep I (KV39). WhenThutmose III achieved warshipsdisplacement up to 360 tons and carried up to ten new heavy and light to seventeen catapults based bronze springs, called "siege crossbow" – more precisely, siege bows. Still appeared giant catamarans that are heavy warships and times ofRamesses III used even when the Ptolemaic dynasty.[37]
According to theGreek historianHerodotus,Necho II sent out an expedition ofPhoenicians, which reputedly, at some point between 610 and before 594 BC, sailed in three years from theRed Sea aroundAfrica to the mouth of theNile. Some Egyptologists dispute that an Egyptian Pharaoh would authorize such an expedition,[38] except for the reason of trade in the ancient maritime routes.
The belief in Herodotus' account, handed down to him byoral tradition,[39] is primarily because he stated with disbelief that the Phoenicians "as they sailed on a westerly course round the southern end of Libya (Africa), they had the sun on their right – to northward of them" (The Histories 4.42) – inHerodotus' time it was not generally known that Africa was surrounded by an ocean (with the southern part of Africa being thought connected to Asia[40]). So fantastic an assertion is this of a typical example of some seafarers' story and Herodotus therefore may never have mentioned it, at all, had it not been based on facts and made with the according insistence.[41]
This early description of Necho's expedition as a whole is contentious, though; it is recommended that one keep an open mind on the subject;[42] butStrabo,Polybius, andPtolemy doubted the description. EgyptologistA. B. Lloyd suggests that the Greeks at this time understood that anyone going south far enough and then turning west would have the Sun on their right but found it unbelievable that Africa reached so far south. He suggests that "It is extremely unlikely that an Egyptian king would, or could, have acted as Necho is depicted as doing" and that the story might have been triggered by the failure ofSataspes' attempt to circumnavigate Africa underXerxes the Great.[43] Regardless, it was believed by Herodotus andPliny.[44]
Much earlier, theSea Peoples was aconfederacy of seafaring raiders who sailed into the eastern shores of theMediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or controlEgyptian territory during the late19th dynasty, and especially during Year 8 ofRamesses III of the20th Dynasty.[45] The Egyptian PharaohMerneptah explicitly refers to them by the term "the foreign-countries (or 'peoples'[46]) of the sea"[47][48] in hisGreat Karnak Inscription.[49] Although some scholars believe that they "invaded"Cyprus and theLevant, this hypothesis is disputed.
In ancient times theKingdom of Punt, which is believed by several Egyptologists to have been situated in the area of modern-daySomalia, had a steady trade link with the Ancient Egyptians and exported the precious natural resources such asmyrrh,frankincense andgum. This trade network continued all the way into theclassical era. The city states ofMossylon,Opone,Malao,Mundus andTabae in Somalia engaged in a lucrative trade network connectingSomali merchants withPhoenicia,Ptolemic Egypt,Greece,Parthian Persia,Saba,Nabataea and theRoman Empire. Somali sailors used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as thebeden to transport their cargo.
Minoan traders fromCrete were active in the eastern Mediterranean by the 2nd millennium BC. ThePhoenicians were an ancientcivilization centered in the north of ancientCanaan, with its heartland along the coast of modern-dayLebanon, WesternSyria and northernIsrael. Phoenician civilization was an enterprisingmaritime trading culture that spread across theMediterranean during the first millennium BC, between the period of 1200 BC to 900 BC. The recent discovery of three shipwrecks off the coast ofIsrael provides new insights into the history of maritime trade during theIron Age.[50] Though ancient boundaries of such city-centered cultures fluctuated, the city ofTyre seems to have been the southernmost.Sarepta betweenSidon and Tyre, is the most thoroughly excavated city of the Phoenician homeland. The Phoenicians often traded by means of agalley, a man-powered sailing vessel. They were the first civilization to create thebireme. There is still debate on the subject of whether the Canaanites and Phoenicians were different peoples or not.
TheMediterranean was the source of the vessel,galley, developed before 1000 BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. TheGreektrireme was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the propulsion power ofoarsmen. Mediterranean peoples developedlighthouse technology and built large fire-based lighthouses, most notably theLighthouse of Alexandria, built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt.
Many in ancient western societies, such asAncient Greece, were in awe of the seas and deified them, believing that man no longer belonged to himself when once he embarked on a sea voyage. They believed that he was liable to be sacrificed at any time to the anger of the greatSea God. Before the Greeks, theCarians were an early Mediterranean seagoing people that travelled far. Early writers do not give a good idea about the progress of navigation nor that of the man's seamanship. One of the early stories of seafaring was that ofOdysseus.
InGreek mythology, theArgonauts were a band of heroes who, in the years before theTrojan War, accompaniedJason toColchis in his quest to find theGolden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, theArgo which in turn was named after its builderArgus. Thus, "Argonauts" literally means "Argo sailors". The voyage of the Greek navigatorPytheas of Massalia is an example of a very early voyage. A competent astronomer and geographer, Pytheas ventured from Greece to Western Europe and the British Isles.[51]
Theperiplus, literally "a sailing-around', in the ancient navigation ofPhoenicians,Greeks, andRomans was a manuscript document that listed in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. Several examples ofperiploi have survived.
Piracy, which is arobbery committed at sea or sometimes on the shore, dates back toClassical Antiquity and, in all likelihood, much further. TheTyrrhenians,Illyrians[52] andThracians[citation needed] were known aspirates in ancient times. The island ofLemnos long resistedGreek influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along theAnatolian coast, threatening thecommerce of theRoman Empire.
The earliest seagoing culture in the Mediterranean is associated withCardium pottery. Their earliest impressed ware sites, dating to 6400–6200 BC, are inEpirus andCorfu. Settlements then appear inAlbania andDalmatia on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC.[53] The earliest date in Italy comes fromCoppa Nevigata on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu culture in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardium pottery appear.[54] Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal BC, which indicates a rapid spread of cardium and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100–200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast.[55]
InIonia (the modern Aegean coast ofTurkey) the Greek cities, which included great centres such asMiletus andHalicarnassus, were unable to maintain their independence and came under the rule of thePersian Empire in the mid-6th century BC. In 499 BC theGreeks rose in theIonian Revolt, andAthens and some other Greek cities went to their aid. In 490 BC, the Persian Great King,Darius I, having suppressed the Ionian cities, sent a fleet to punish the Greeks. The Persians landed inAttica, but were defeated at theBattle of Marathon by a Greek army led by the Athenian generalMiltiades. The burial mound of the Athenian dead can still be seen at Marathon. Ten years later Darius' successor,Xerxes I, sent a much more powerful force by land. After being delayed by the Spartan KingLeonidas I atThermopylae, Xerxes advanced into Attica, where he captured and burned Athens. But the Athenians had evacuated the city by sea, and underThemistocles they defeated the Persian fleet at theBattle of Salamis. A year later, the Greeks, under the SpartanPausanias, defeated the Persian army atPlataea. The Athenian fleet then turned to chasing the Persians out of the Aegean Sea, and in 478 BC they capturedByzantium. In the course of doing so Athens enrolled all the island states and some mainland allies into an alliance, called theDelian League because its treasury was kept on the sacred island ofDelos. TheSpartans, although they had taken part in the war, withdrew into isolation after it, allowing Athens to establish unchallenged naval andcommercial power.
ThePunic Wars were a series of three wars fought betweenRome andCarthage. The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman sphere of influence. The Romans were initially interested in expansion viaSicily, part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of thefirst Punic War, Carthage was the dominant power of theMediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power inItaly. By the end of the third war, after the deaths of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both sides, Rome had conquered Carthage's empire and razed the city, becoming in the process the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. With the end of theMacedonian wars – which ran concurrently with the Punic Wars – and the defeat of theSeleucid EmperorAntiochus III the Great in theRoman-Syrian War (Treaty of Apamea, 188 BC) in the eastern sea, Rome emerged as the dominant Mediterranean power and the most powerful city in the classical world. This was a turning point that meant that the civilization of the ancientMediterranean would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa.
TheCoracle, a small single-passenger-sized float, has been used in Britain since before the first Roman invasion as noted by the invaders. Coracles are round or oval in shape, made of a wooden frame with a hide stretched over it thentarred to provide waterproofing. Being so light, an operator can carry the light craft over the shoulder. They are capable of operating in mere inches of water due to the keel-less hull. The early people of Wales used these boats for fishing and light travel and updated models are still in use to this day on the rivers ofScotland andWales.
EarlyBritons also used thedugout canoe. Examples of these canoes have been found buried in marshes and mud banks of rivers at lengths of upward eight feet.[56]
In 1992 a notable archaeological find, named the "Dover Bronze Age Boat", was unearthed from beneath what is modern dayDover, England. TheBronze Age boat which is about 9.5 meters long × 2.3 meters wide is believed to have been a seagoing vessel.Carbon dating reveals that the craft dating from approximately 1600 BC might be the oldest known sea-going boat. The hull was of halfoak logs and side panels also of oak were stitched on withyew lashings. Both the straight-grained oak and yew bindings are now extinct as a shipbuilding method inEngland. A reconstruction in 1996 proved that a crew between four and sixteen paddlers could have easily propelled the boat during Force 4 winds upwards of four knots but with a maximum of 5 knots (9 km/h). The boat could have easily carried a significant amount of cargo and with a strong crew may have been able to traverse near thirty nautical miles in a day.[57]
TheNorsemen, or 'people from the North', were people from southern and centralScandinavia which established states and settlements Northern Europe from the late 8th century to the 11th century.Vikings has been a common term for Norsemen in the earlymedieval period, especially in connection with raids andmonastic plundering made by Norsemen in Great Britain and Ireland.
Leif Ericson was anIcelandicexplorer known to be the firstEuropean to have landed inNorth America (presumably inNewfoundland,Canada). During a stay inNorway, Leif Ericsson converted toChristianity, like many Norse of that time. He also went to Norway to serve theKing of Norway,Olaf Tryggvason. When he returned toGreenland, he bought the boat ofBjarni Herjólfsson and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found (locatedwest of Greenland), which was, in fact, Newfoundland, in Canada. TheSaga of the Greenlanders tells that Leif set out around the year 1000 to follow Bjarni's route with 15 crew members, but going north.[58]
Austronesians inMaritime Southeast Asia developed very earlymaritime trade networks in theNeolithic. The first of which is theMaritime Jade Road. It lasted for around 3,000 years, from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. It was initially established by the indigenous peoples ofTaiwan and thePhilippines. Raw jade was sourced from deposits in Taiwan and worked into ornaments in the Philippines (the most notable and most numerous of which are double-headed pendants known aslingling-o). This network later included parts ofVietnam,Malaysia,Indonesia,Thailand, and other areas in Southeast Asia where these jade ornaments, along with other trade goods, were exchanged (also known as theSa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere).[59][60][61][62] The wide distribution throughoutIsland Southeast Asia of the ceremonialbronze drums (c. 600 BCE to 400 CE) sourced from theDong Son culture of northern Vietnam is also evidence of the antiquity and density of this prehistoric Southeast Asian maritime network.[63]
Austronesians also established very early connections (part of the earlyspice trade networks) withDravidian-speaking regions inSri Lanka andSouthern India by around 1500 to 600 BCE.[64][65][66][20][67] These early contacts resulted in the introduction of Austronesian crops and material culture to South Asia,[65] includingbetel nut chewing,coconuts,sandalwood, domesticatedbananas,[65][64]sugarcane,[68]cloves, andnutmeg.[69] It also introduced Austronesian sailing technologies likeoutrigger boats which are still utilized in Sri Lanka and southern India.[20][65] During this period, the distribution of Austronesian trade goods likekapur barus and cloves also reached beyond South Asia toancient Egypt and theRoman Empire.[70][71]: 1 There is also indirect evidence of very early Austronesian contacts withAfrica, based on the presence and spread of Austronesian domesticates like bananas,taro,chickens, andpurple yam in Africa in the first millennium BCE.[65]
By around the 2nd century BCE, the prehistoric Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia fully connected with themaritime trade routes ofSouth Asia, theMiddle East, easternAfrica, and theMediterranean, becoming what is now known as theMaritime Silk Road. Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctivesewn-plank andlashed-lug ships, althoughPersian andTamil traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.[63][72] It allowed the exchange of goods fromEast and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way toEurope and eastern Africa on the other.[73][72]
Austronesianthalassocracies controlled the flow of trade in the eastern regions of the Maritime Silk Road, especially thepolities around thestraits ofMalacca andBangka, theMalay Peninsula, and theMekong Delta; through which passed the main routes of the Austronesian trade ships toGiao Chỉ (in theTonkin Gulf) andGuangzhou (southernChina), the endpoints.[63] Secondary routes also passed through the coastlines of theGulf of Thailand;[73][74] as well as through theJava Sea,Celebes Sea,Banda Sea, and theSulu Sea, reconnecting with the main route through the northern Philippines and Taiwan. The secondary routes also continue onward to theEast China Sea and theYellow Sea for a limited extent.[73]
The main route of the western regions of the Maritime Silk Road directly crosses theIndian Ocean from the northern tip ofSumatra (or through theSunda Strait) toSri Lanka, southernIndia andBangladesh, and theMaldives. It branches from here into routes through theArabian Sea entering theGulf of Oman (into thePersian Gulf), and theGulf of Aden (into theRed Sea). Secondary routes also pass through the coastlines of theBay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, and southwards along the coast ofEast Africa toZanzibar, theComoros,Madagascar, and theSeychelles.[73][75] The Maldives was of particular importance as a major hub for Austronesian sailors venturing through the western routes.[73] The Austronesian people also reachedMadagascar in the early 1st millennium AD and colonized it.[76][77][78][79]
Han andTang dynasty Chinese records also indicate that the early Chinese Buddhistpilgrims to South Asia booked passage with the Austronesian ships (which they called thek'un-lun po) that traded in the Chinese port city ofGuangzhou. Books written by Chinese monks like Wan Chen and Hui-Lin contain detailed accounts of the large trading vessels from Southeast Asia dating back to at least the 3rd century CE.[80][81]: 347 [82]: 262
Srivijaya, aHindu-Buddhist Austronesian polity founded atPalembang in 682 CE, rose to dominate the trade in the region around the straits ofMalacca andSunda and the South China Seaemporium by controlling the trade in luxury aromatics and Buddhist artifacts from West Asia to a thriving Tang market.[63]: 12 It emerged through the conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These includedMelayu,Kedah,Tarumanagara, andMataram, among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of theSpice Islands, as well as maritime trade-routes betweenIndia andChina.[83]
TheButuan boat burials of thePhilippines, which feature elevenlashed-lug boat remains of theAustronesian boatbuilding traditions (individually dated from 689 CE to 988 CE), were found in association with large amounts of trade goods fromChina,Cambodia,Thailand (Haripunjaya andSatingpra),Vietnam, and as far asPersia, indicating they traded as far as theMiddle East.[84][85][86]
These maritime routes persisted (with increasing participation of other maritime cultures) into themedieval era, before declining and being replaced with European trade routes during thecolonial era in the 15th century.[63][87][88]
In theIndian maritime history, the world's firsttidal dock was built in phase II ofLothal[89][90] during theHarappan civilisation near the present dayMangrol harbour on theGujarat coast. Other ports were probably atBalakot andDwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade.[91] Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities establishedtrade withMesopotamia,[92] where the Indus Valley may have been known asMeluhha.
EmperorChandragupta Maurya'sPrime MinisterKautilya'sArthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways undernāvādhyakṣa (Sanskrit forSuperintendent of ships)[1]. The terms,nāvā dvīpāntaragamanam (Sanskrit for sailing to other lands by ships) andsamudrasaṁyānam (maritime travel) appear in the work.
TheMaritime history ofKalinga (nowOdisha) is an important highlight of the traditions of Indian maritime history as it was influential in establishing trading links with Southeast Asia along theMaritime Silk Road. The people of this region of easternIndia along the coast of theBay of Bengal sailed up and down theIndian coast, and travelled toIndo China and throughoutMaritime Southeast Asia,introducing elements oftheir culture to thepeople with whom they traded. The 6th centuryMañjuśrīmūlakalpa mentions theBay of Bengal as 'Kaliṅgodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kaliṅga Sāgara' (both Kaliṅgodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in themaritime trade.[93]
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Japan had a navy by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during theThree Kingdoms of Korea. A joint alliance between the KoreanSilla Kingdom and the ChineseTang dynasty (618–907 AD) heavily defeated the Japanese and their Korean allies ofBaekje in theBattle of Baekgang on August 27 to August 28 of the year 663 AD. This decisive victory expelled the Japanese force from Korea and allowed the Tang and Silla to conquerGoguryeo.
Ancient Rome had a variety of ships that played crucial roles in itsmilitary,trade, and transportation activities.[94] Rome was preceded in the use of the sea by other ancient, seafaringcivilizations of the Mediterranean. Thegalley was a long, narrow, highly maneuverable ship powered by oarsmen, sometimes stacked in multiple levels such asbiremes ortriremes, and many of which also had sails. Initial efforts of the Romans to construct a war fleet were based on copies of Carthaginian warships. In thePunic Wars in the mid-third century BCE, the Romans were at first outclassed by Carthage at sea, but by 256 BCE had drawn even and fought the wars to a stalemate. In 55 BCEJulius Caesar used warships and transport ships toinvade Britain. Numerous types of transport ships were used to carry foodstuffs or other trade goods around the Mediterranean, many of which did double duty and were pressed into service as warships or troop transports in time of war. Roman ships are named in different ways, often in compound expressions with the wordLatin:navis,lit. 'ship'. These are found in many ancient Roman texts, and named in different ways, such as by the appearance of the ship: for example,navis tecta (covered ship); or by its function, for example:navis mercatoria (commerce ship), ornavis praedatoria (plunder ship). Others, likenavis frumentaria (grain),navis lapidaria (stones), andnavis vivaria (live fish), are about the cargo. TheAlthiburos mosaic in Tunisia lists many types of ships.[95] The expressionnaves longae (lit. "long ships") is the plural of the noun phrasenavis longa ("long ship"), following the rules for pluralization of feminine,third declension nouns in Latin, and inflectional agreement of the adjectivelongus to match.
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