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Marine engineering is theengineering ofwatercrafts,ocean systems, and ocean structures. After completing this degree, one can join a ship as an officer in theengine department and eventually rise to the rank ofchief engineer. This rank is one of the top ranks onboard and is equal to the rank of a ship's captain. Marine engineering is the highly preferred course to join themerchant Navy as an officer, as it provides ample opportunities in terms of both afloat and ashore jobs.
Marine engineering applies a number of engineering sciences, includingmechanical engineering,electrical engineering,electronic engineering, andcomputer Engineering, to the development, design, operation and maintenance ofwatercraft propulsion and ocean systems.[1] It includes but is not limited topower and propulsion plants, machinery, piping,automation andcontrol systems for marine vehicles of any kind, as well as coastal and offshore structures.
Archimedes is traditionally regarded as the first marine engineer, having developed a number of marine engineering systems in antiquity. Modern marine engineering dates back to the beginning of theIndustrial Revolution (early 1700s).
In 1807,Robert Fulton successfully used asteam engine to propel a vessel through the water. Fulton's ship used the engine to power a small woodenpaddle wheel as itsmarine propulsion system. The integration of a steam engine into awatercraft to create amarine steam engine was the start of the marine engineering profession. Only twelve years after Fulton'sClermont had her first voyage, theSavannah marked the first sea voyage from America to Europe. Around 50 years later the steam powered paddle wheels had a peak with the creation of theGreat Eastern, which was as big as one of the cargo ships of today, 700 feet in length, weighing 22,000 tons.Paddle steamers would become the front runners of the steamship industry for the next thirty years till the next type of propulsion came around.[2]
There are several educational paths to becoming a marine engineer, all of which includes earning a university or college degree, such as aBachelor of Engineering (B.Eng. or B.E.),Bachelor of Science (B.Sc. or B.S.),Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.), Bachelor of Technology Management and Marine Engineering (B.TecMan & MarEng), or aBachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc.) in Marine Engineering.
Depending on the country and jurisdiction, to be licensed as a Marine engineer, aMaster's degree, such as aMaster of Engineering (M.Eng.),Master of Science (M.Sc. or M.S.), orMaster of Applied Science (M.A.Sc.) may be required.
Some marine engineers join the profession laterally, entering from other disciplines, likeMechanical Engineering,Civil Engineering,Electrical Engineering,Geomatics Engineering andEnvironmental Engineering, or from science-based fields, such asGeology,Geophysics,Physics,Geomatics,Earth Science, andMathematics. To qualify as a marine engineer, those changing professions are required to earn agraduate Marine Engineering degree, such as an M.Eng, M.S., M.Sc., or M.A.Sc., after graduating from a differentquantitativeundergraduate program.
The fundamental subjects of marine engineering study usually include:
In the engineering of seagoing vessels, naval architecture is concerned with the overall design of the ship and its propulsion through the water, while marine engineering ensures that the ship systems function as per the design.[3] Although they have distinctive disciplines, naval architects and marine engineers often work side-by-side.
Ocean engineering is concerned with other structures and systems in or adjacent to the ocean, includingoffshore platforms, coastal structures such aspiers andharbors, and other ocean systems such as oceanwave energy conversion and underwaterlife-support systems.[4] This in fact makesocean engineering a distinctive field from marine engineering, which is concerned with the design and application of shipboard systems specifically.[5] However, on account of its similar nomenclature and multiple overlapping core disciplines (e.g.hydrodynamics,hydromechanics, andmaterials science), "ocean engineering" sometimes operates under the umbrella term of "marine engineering", especially in industry and academia outside of theU.S. The same combination has been applied to the rest of this article.
Oceanography is a scientific field concerned with the acquisition and analysis of data to characterize the ocean. Although separate disciplines, marine engineering and oceanography are closely intertwined: marine engineers often usedata gathered by oceanographers to inform their design and research, and oceanographers use tools designed by marine engineers (more specifically, oceanographic engineers) to advance their understanding and exploration of the ocean.[6]
Marine engineering incorporates many aspects of mechanical engineering. One manifestation of this relationship lies in the design of shipboard propulsion systems. Mechanical engineers design the mainpropulsion plant, the powering and mechanization aspects of the ship functions such as steering,anchoring,cargo handling, heating, ventilation, air conditioning interior and exterior communication, and other related requirements.Electrical power generation andelectrical power distribution systems are typically designed by their suppliers; the only design responsibility of the marine engineering is installation.
Furthermore, an understanding ofmechanical engineering topics such asfluid dynamics,fluid mechanics,linear wave theory,strength of materials,structural mechanics, andstructural dynamics is essential to a marine engineer's repertoire of skills. These and other mechanical engineering subjects serve as an integral component of the marine engineering curriculum.[7]
Civil engineering concepts play in an important role in many marine engineering projects such as the design and construction of ocean structures, oceanbridges andtunnels, and port/harbor design.
Marine engineering often deals in the fields ofelectrical engineering androbotics, especially in applications related to employing deep-sea cables and UUVs.
A series of transoceanicfiber optic cables are responsible for connecting much of the world's communication via theinternet, carrying as much as 99 percent of total global internet and signal traffic. These cables must be engineered to withstand deep-sea environments that are remote and often unforgiving, with extreme pressures and temperatures as well as potential interference byfishing,trawling, andsea life.
The use ofunmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) stands to benefit from the use of autonomous algorithms and networking. Marine engineers aim to learn how advancements in autonomy and networking can be used to enhance existing UUV technologies and facilitate the development of more capable underwater vehicles.
A knowledge of marine engineering proves useful in the field of petroleum engineering, as hydrodynamics and seabed integration serve as key elements in the design and maintenance of offshoreoil platforms.
Marine construction is the process of building structures in or adjacent to large bodies of water, usually the sea. These structures can be built for a variety of purposes, including transportation, energy production, and recreation. Marine construction can involve the use of a variety of building materials, predominantly steel andconcrete. Some examples of marine structures include ships, offshore platforms, moorings, pipelines, cables, wharves, bridges, tunnels, breakwaters and docks.
In the same way that civil engineers design to accommodate wind loads on building and bridges, marine engineers design to accommodate a ship or submarine struck by waves millions of times over the course of the vessel's life. These load conditions are also found in marine construction and coastal engineering
Any seagoing vessel has the constant need for hydrostatic stability. Anaval architect, like an airplane designer, is concerned withstability. What makes the naval architect's job unique is that a ship operates in two fluids simultaneously: water and air. Even after a ship has been designed and put to sea, marine engineers face the challenge of balancing cargo, as stacking containers vertically increases the mass of the ship and shifts the center of gravity higher. The weight of fuel also presents a problem, as the pitch of the ship may cause the liquid to shift, resulting in an imbalance. In some vessels, this offset will be counteracted by storing water inside largerballast tanks. Marine engineers are responsible for the task of balancing and tracking the fuel and ballast water of a ship. Floating offshore structures have similar constraints.
The saltwater environment faced by seagoing vessels makes them highly susceptible to corrosion. In every project, marine engineers are concerned with surface protection and preventinggalvanic corrosion.Corrosion can be inhibited throughcathodic protection by introducing pieces of metal (e.g.zinc) to serve as a "sacrificial anode" in the corrosion reaction. This causes the metal to corrode instead of the ship's hull. Another way to prevent corrosion is by sending a controlled amount of low DC current through the ship's hull, thereby changing the hull's electrical charge and delaying the onset of electro-chemical corrosion. Similar problems are encountered in coastal and offshore structures.
Anti-fouling is the process of eliminating obstructive organisms from essential components of seawater systems. Depending on the nature and location of marine growth, this process is performed in a number of different ways:
The burning of marine fuels releases harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. Ships burn marine diesel in addition toheavy fuel oil. Heavy fuel oil, being the heaviest ofrefined oils, releasessulfur dioxide when burned.Sulfur dioxide emissions have the potential to raise atmospheric andocean acidity causing harm to marine life. However, heavy fuel oil may only be burned ininternational waters due to the pollution created. It is commercially advantageous due to the cost effectiveness compared to other marine fuels. It is prospected that heavy fuel oil will be phased out of commercial use by the year 2020 (Smith, 2018).[10]
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Water, oil, and other substances collect at the bottom of the ship in what is known as the bilge. Bilge water is pumped overboard, but must pass a pollution threshold test of 15 ppm (parts per million) of oil to be discharged. Water is tested and either discharged if clean or recirculated to a holding tank to be separated before being tested again. The tank it is sent back to, the oily water separator, utilizes gravity to separate the fluids due to their viscosity. Ships over 400 gross tons are required to carry the equipment to separate oil from bilge water. Further, as enforced by MARPOL, all ships over 400 gross tons and all oil tankers over 150 gross tons are required to log all oil transfers in an oil record book.[11]
Cavitation is the process of forming an air bubble in a liquid due to the vaporization of that liquid cause by an area of low pressure. This area of low pressure lowers the boiling point of a liquid allowing it to vaporize into a gas. Cavitation can take place in pumps, which can cause damage to the impeller that moves the fluids through the system. Cavitation is also seen in propulsion. Low pressure pockets form on the surface of the propeller blades as its revolutions per minute increase.[12] Cavitation on the propeller causes a small but violent implosion which could warp the propeller blade. To remedy the issue, more blades allow the same amount of propulsion force but at a lower rate of revolutions. This is crucial for submarines as the propeller needs to keep the vessel relatively quiet to stay hidden. With more propeller blades, the vessel is able to achieve the same amount of propulsion force at lower shaft revolutions.
Wave loading is most commonly the application of a pulsed or wavelikeload to a material or object. This is most commonly used in the analysis of piping, ships, or building structures which experience wind, water, orseismic disturbances.
The following categories provide a number of focus areas in which marine engineers direct their efforts.
In designing systems that operate in the arctic (especially scientific equipment such asmeteorological instrumentation andoceanographic buoys), marine engineers must overcome an array of design challenges. Equipment must be able to operate at extreme temperatures for prolonged periods of time, often with little to no maintenance. This creates the need for exceptionally temperature-resistant materials and durable precision electronic components.[citation needed]
Coastal engineering applies a mixture of civil engineering and other disciplines to create coastal solutions for areas along or near the ocean. In protecting coastlines fromwave forces,erosion, andsea level rise, marine engineers must consider whether they will use a "gray" infrastructure solution - such as a breakwater, culvert, or sea wall made from rocks and concrete - or a "green" infrastructure solution that incorporates aquatic plants, mangroves, and/or marsh ecosystems.[14] It has been found that gray infrastructure costs more to build and maintain, but it may provide better protection against ocean forces in high-energy wave environments.[15] A green solution is generally less expensive and more well-integrated with local vegetation, but may be susceptible to erosion or damage if executed improperly.[16] In many cases engineers will select a hybrid approach that combines elements of both gray and green solutions.[17]
The design of underwaterlife-support systems such asunderwater habitats presents a set of challenges requiring a detailed knowledge of pressure vessels,diving physiology, and thermodynamics.
Marine engineers may design or make frequent use ofunmanned underwater vehicles, which operate underwater without a human aboard. UUVs often perform work in locations which would be otherwise impossible or difficult to access by humans due to a number of environmental factors (e.g. depth, remoteness, and/or temperature). UUVs can be remotely operated by humans, like in the case ofremotely operated vehicles,semi-autonomous, orautonomous.
The development ofoceanographic sciences, subsea engineering and the ability to detect, track and destroy submarines (anti-submarine warfare) required the parallel development of a host of marine scientific instrumentation andsensors. Visible light is not transferred far underwater, so the medium for transmission of data is primarilyacoustic. High-frequency sound is used to measure the depth of the ocean, determine the nature of the seafloor, and detect submerged objects. The higher the frequency, the higher the definition of the data that is returned. Sound Navigation and Ranging orSONAR was developed during theFirst World War to detectsubmarines, and has been greatly refined through to the present day. Submarines similarly use sonar equipment to detect and target other submarines and surface ships, and to detect submerged obstacles such asseamounts that pose a navigational obstacle. Simpleecho-sounders point straight down and can give an accurate reading of ocean depth (or look up at the underside of sea-ice).More advanced echo sounders use a fan-shaped beam or sound, ormultiple beams to derive highly detailed images of the ocean floor. High power systems can penetrate the soil and seabed rocks to give information about the geology of the seafloor, and are widely used ingeophysics for the discovery ofhydrocarbons, or for engineering survey. For close-range underwater communications, optical transmission is possible, mainly usingblue lasers. These have a high bandwidth compared with acoustic systems, but the range is usually only a few tens of metres, and ideally at night. As well as acoustic communications and navigation, sensors have been developed to measure ocean parameters such as temperature,salinity, oxygen levels and other properties including nitrate levels, levels of trace chemicals andenvironmental DNA. The industry trend has been towards smaller, more accurate and more affordable systems so that they can be purchased and used by university departments and small companies as well as large corporations, research organisations and governments. The sensors and instruments are fitted to autonomous and remotely-operated systems as well as ships, and are enabling these systems to take on tasks that hitherto required an expensive human-crewed platform.Manufacture of marine sensors and instruments mainly takes place in Asia, Europe and North America. Products are advertised in specialist journals, and throughTrade Shows such asOceanology International andOcean Business which help raise awareness of the products.
In every coastal and offshore project, environmentalsustainability is an important consideration for the preservation of oceanecosystems andnatural resources. Instances in which marine engineers benefit from knowledge of environmental engineering include creation offisheries, clean-up ofoil spills, and creation ofcoastal solutions.[18]
A number of systems designed fully or in part by marine engineers are used offshore - far away from coastlines.
The design ofoffshore oil platforms involves a number of marine engineering challenges. Platforms must be able to withstandocean currents, wave forces, and saltwatercorrosion while remaining structurally integral and fully anchored into theseabed. Additionally, drilling components must be engineered to handle these same challenges with a highfactor of safety to prevent oil leaks and spills from contaminating the ocean.
Offshore wind farms encounter many similar marine engineering challenges to oil platforms. They provide a source ofrenewable energy with a higher yield than wind farms on land, while encountering less resistance from the general public (seeNIMBY).[19]
Marine engineers continue to investigate the possibility ofocean wave energy as a viable source of power fordistributed orgrid applications. Many designs have been proposed and numerous prototypes have been built, but the problem of harnessing wave energy in a cost-effective manner remains largely unresolved.[20]
A marine engineer may also deal with the planning, creation, expansion, and modification ofport andharbor designs. Harbors can be natural or artificial and protect anchored ships from wind, waves, and currents.[21] Ports can be defined as a city, town, or place where ships are moored, loaded, or unloaded. Ports typically reside within a harbor and are made up of one or more individual terminals that handle a particular cargo including passengers, bulkcargo, orcontainerized cargo.[22] Marine engineers plan and design various types of marine terminals and structures found in ports, and they must understand the loads imposed on these structures over the course of their lifetime.
Marine salvage techniques are continuously modified and improved to recover shipwrecks. Marine engineers use their skills to assist at some stages of this process.
With a diverse engineering background, marine engineers work in a variety of industry jobs across every field of math, science, technology, and engineering. A few companies such asOceaneering International andVan Oord specialize in marine engineering, while other companies consult marine engineers for specific projects. Such consulting commonly occurs in the oil industry, with companies such asExxonMobil andBP hiring marine engineers to manage aspects of their offshore drilling projects.
Marine engineering lends itself to a number ofmilitary applications – mostly related to theNavy. TheUnited States Navy'sSeabees,Civil Engineer Corps, andEngineering Duty Officers often perform work related to marine engineering. Military contractors (especially those in naval shipyards) and theArmy Corps of Engineers play a role in certain marine engineering projects as well.
In 2012, the average annual earnings for marine engineers in the U.S. were $96,140 with average hourly earnings of $46.22.[23] As a field, marine engineering is predicted to grow approximately 12% from 2016 to 2026. Currently, there are about 8,200 naval architects and marine engineers employed, however, this number is expected to increase to 9,200 by 2026.[24] This is due at least in part to the critical role of the shipping industry on the global market supply chain; 80% of the world's trade by volume is done overseas by close to 50,000 ships, all of which require marine engineers aboard and shoreside.[25] Additionally, offshore energy continues to grow, and a greater need exists forcoastal solutions due tosea level rise.
Maritime universities are dedicated to teaching and training students in maritime professions. Marine engineers generally have a bachelor's degree in marine engineering, marine engineering technology, or marine systems engineering. Practical training is valued by employers alongside the bachelor's degree.
A number of institutions - includingMIT,[27]UC Berkeley,[28] theU.S. Naval Academy,[29] andTexas A&M University[30] - offer a four-yearBachelor of Science degree specifically in ocean engineering. Accredited programs consist of basic undergraduate math and science subjects such ascalculus,statistics,chemistry, andphysics; fundamentalengineering subjects such asstatics,dynamics,electrical engineering, andthermodynamics; and more specialized subjects such as oceanstructural analysis,hydromechanics, andcoastal management.
Graduate students in ocean engineering take classes on more advanced, in-depth subjects while conducting research to complete a graduate-level thesis. TheMassachusetts Institute of Technology offersmaster's andPhD degrees specifically in ocean engineering.[31] Additionally,MIT co-hosts a joint program with theWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution for students studying ocean engineering and other ocean-related topics at the graduate level.[32][33]
Journals about ocean engineering includeOcean Engineering,[34] theIEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering[35] and theJournal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering.[36]
Conferences in the field of marine engineering include the IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society's OCEANS Conference and Exposition[37] and the European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference (EWTEC).[38]
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