He greatly influenced both ancient and modern reception of theLatin language. A substantial part of his work has survived, and he was admired by both ancient and modern authors alike.[9][10][11] Cicero adapted the arguments of the chief schools ofHellenistic philosophy in Latin and coined a large portion of Latin philosophical vocabulary vialexical innovation (e.g.neologisms such asevidentia,[12]generator,humanitas,infinitio,qualitas,quantitas),[13] almost 150 of which were the result of translatingGreek philosophicalterms.[14]
Though he was an accomplished orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. It was during his consulship that theCatiline conspiracy attempted to overthrow the government through an attack on the city by outside forces, and Cicero (by his own account) suppressed the revolt by summarily and controversially executing five conspirators without trial, an act which would later lead to his exile. During the chaotic middle period of the first century BC, marked bycivil wars and the dictatorship ofJulius Caesar, Cicero was a supporter of theOptimates faction. Following Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy ofMark Antony in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in aseries of speeches. He wasproscribed as an enemy of the state by theSecond Triumvirate and consequently executed by soldiers operating on their behalf in 43 BC, having been intercepted during an attempted flight from the Italian peninsula. His severed hands and head (taken by order of Antony and displayed representing the repercussions of his anti-Antonian actions as a writer and as an orator, respectively) were then displayed on theRostra.[15]
Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-centuryRenaissance inpublic affairs,humanism, and classical Roman culture.[16] According to Polish historianTadeusz Zieliński, "the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest ofClassical antiquity."[17] The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the 18th-centuryEnlightenment,[18] and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers and political theorists such asJohn Locke,David Hume,Montesquieu, andEdmund Burke was substantial.[19] His works rank among the most influential in global culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision ofRoman history, especially the last days of theRoman Republic.[20]
Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC inArpinum, a hill town 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of Rome.[21] He belonged to thetribus Cornelia.[22] His father was a wealthy member of theequestrian order and possessed good connections in Rome. However, not being of robust health (he experienced poor digestion and inflammation of the eyes[23]), he could not enter public life and studied extensively to compensate. Little is known about Cicero's mother Helvia, but Cicero's brotherQuintus wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife.[24]
Cicero'scognomen, a hereditary nickname, comes from the Latin forchickpea,cicer.Plutarch explains that the name was originally given to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea.[25] The famous family names ofFabius,Lentulus, andPiso come from the Latin names of beans, lentils, and peas, respectively. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would makeCicero more glorious thanScaurus ("Swollen-ankled") andCatulus ("Puppy").[26]
At the age of 15, in 90 BC, Cicero started serving underPompey Strabo and laterSulla in theSocial war between Rome and its Italian allies.[27] When in Rome during the turbulentplebeian tribunate ofPublius Sulpicius Rufus in 88 BC which saw a short bout of fighting between the Sulpicius and Sulla, who had been elected consul for that year, Cicero found himself greatly impressed by Sulpicius' oratory even if he disagreed with his politics.[28] He continued his studies at Rome, writing a pamphlet titledOn Invention relating to rhetorical argumentation and studying philosophy with Greek academics who had fled the ongoingFirst Mithridatic War.[29]
During this period in Roman history, Greek language and cultural studies were highly valued by the elite classes. Cicero was therefore educated in the teachings of theancient Greek philosophers,poets andhistorians; as he obtained much of his understanding of the theory and practice ofrhetoric from the Greek poetArchias.[30] Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite.[31]
Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him providing a comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience,[32] including creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin.[33] In 87 BC,Philo of Larissa, the head of thePlatonic Academy that had been founded byPlato in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired by an extraordinary zeal for philosophy",[34] sat enthusiastically at his feet and absorbedCarneades'Academic Skeptic philosophy.[35][36]
According to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome,[37] affording him the opportunity to study Roman law underQuintus Mucius Scaevola.[38] Cicero's fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor,Servius Sulpicius Rufus (who became a famous lawyer, one of the few whom Cicero considered superior to himself in legal matters), andTitus Pomponius. The latter two became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who later received the nickname "Atticus", and whose sister married Cicero's brother) would become, in Cicero's own words, "as a second brother", with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence.[31]
In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece,Asia Minor andRhodes. This was perhaps to avoid the potential wrath ofSulla, as Plutarch claims,[39][38] though Cicero himself says it was to hone his skills and improve his physical fitness.[40] InAthens he studied philosophy withAntiochus of Ascalon, the 'Old Academic' and initiator ofMiddle Platonism.[41] In Asia Minor, he met the leading orators of the region and continued to study with them. Cicero then journeyed to Rhodes to meet his former teacher, Apollonius Molon, who had taught him in Rome. Molon helped Cicero hone the excesses in his style, as well as train his body and lungs for the demands of public speaking.[42] Charting a middle path between the competingAttic andAsiatic styles, Cicero would ultimately become considered second only toDemosthenes among history's orators.[43]
While Cicero had feared that the law courts would be closed forever, they were reopened in the aftermath ofSulla's civil war and the purging of Sulla's political opponents in theproscriptions. Many of the orators whom Cicero had admired in his youth were now dead from age or political violence. His first major appearance in the courts was in 81 BC at the age of 26 when he deliveredPro Quinctio, a speech defending certain commercial transactions which Cicero had recorded and disseminated.[44]
His more famous speech defendingSextus Roscius ofAmeria –Pro Roscio Amerino – on charges ofparricide in 80 BC was his first appearance in criminal court. In this high-profile case, Cicero accused a freedman of the dictator Sulla,Chrysogonus, of fabricating Roscius' father's proscription to obtain Roscius' family's property. Successful in his defence, Cicero tactfully avoided incriminating Sulla of any wrongdoing and developed a positive oratorical reputation for himself.[45]
While Plutarch claims that Cicero left Rome shortly thereafter out of fear of Sulla's response,[38] according to Kathryn Tempest, "most scholars now dismiss this suggestion" because Cicero left Rome after Sulla resigned his dictatorship.[45] Cicero, for his part, later claimed that he left Rome, headed for Asia, to develop his physique and develop his oratory.[46] After marrying his wife,Terentia, in 80 BC, he eventually left for Asia Minor with his brotherQuintus, his friendTitus Atticus, and others on a long trip spanning most of 79 through 77 BC.[47] Returning to Rome in 77 BC, Cicero again busied himself with legal defence.[48]
In 76 BC, at the quaestorian elections, Cicero was elected at the minimum age required – 30 years – in the first returns from thecomitia tributa, to the post ofquaestor. Ex officio, he also became a member of theSenate. In the quaestorian lot, he was assigned toSicily for 75 BC. The post, which was largely one related to financial administration in support of the state or provincial governors, proved for Cicero an important place where he could gain clients in the provinces. His time in Sicily saw him balance his duties – largely in terms of sending more grain back to Rome – with his support for the provincials, Roman businessmen in the area, and local potentates. Adeptly balancing those responsibilities, he won their gratitude.[49] He was also appreciated by local Syracusans for the rediscovery of the lost tomb ofArchimedes, which he personally financed.[50]
Promising to lend the Sicilians his oratorical voice, he was called on a few years after his quaestorship to prosecute the Roman province's governorGaius Verres,[51] for abuse of power and corruption.[52] In 70 BC, at the age of 36, Cicero launched his first high-profile prosecution against Verres, an emblem of the corrupt Sullan supporters who had risen in the chaos of the civil war.[53]
The prosecution of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success[54] for Cicero. While Verres hired the prominent lawyer,Quintus Hortensius, after a lengthy period in Sicily collecting testimonials and evidence and persuading witnesses to come forward, Cicero returned to Rome and won the case in a series of dramatic court battles. His unique style of oratory set him apart from the flamboyant Hortensius. On the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. The view that Cicero may have taken the case for reasons of his own is viable. Hortensius was, at this point, known as the best lawyer in Rome; to beat him would guarantee much success and the prestige that Cicero needed to start his career. Cicero's oratorical ability is shown in hischaracter assassination of Verres and various other techniques of persuasion used on the jury. One such example is found in the speechIn Verrem, where he states "with you on this bench, gentlemen, withMarcus Acilius Glabrio as your president, I do not understand what Verres can hope to achieve".[55] Oratory was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an important tool for disseminating knowledge and promoting oneself in elections, in part because there were no regular newspapers or mass media. Cicero was neither apatrician nor a plebeiannoble; his rise to political office despite his relatively humble origins has traditionally been attributed to his brilliance as an orator.[56]
Cicero grew up in a time of civil unrest and war. Sulla's victory in the first of a series of civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that underminedlibertas (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. Nonetheless, Sulla's reforms strengthened the position of the equestrian class, contributing to that class's growing political power. Cicero was both an Italianeques and anovus homo, but more importantly he was aRoman constitutionalist. His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured that he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes". Theoptimates faction never truly accepted Cicero, and this undermined his efforts to reform the Republic while preserving the constitution. Nevertheless, he successfully ascended the cursus honorum, holding each magistracy at or near the youngest possible age: quaestor in 75 BC (age 30),aedile in 69 BC (age 36), andpraetor in 66 BC (age 39), when he served as president of the extortion court. He was then elected consul at age 42.[citation needed]
Cicero, seizing the opportunity offered by optimate fear of reform, was elected consul for the year 63 BC;[57][58] he was elected with the support of every unit of thecenturiate assembly, rival members of the post-Sullan establishment, and the leaders of municipalities throughout post-Social War Italy.[58] His co-consul for the year,Gaius Antonius Hybrida, played a minor role.[59]
He began his consular year by opposing a land bill proposed by a plebeian tribune which would have appointed commissioners with semi-permanent authority over land reform.[60][57] Cicero was also active in the courts, defendingGaius Rabirius from accusations of participating in the unlawful killing of plebeian tribuneLucius Appuleius Saturninus in 100 BC.[61] The prosecution occurred before thecomita centuriata and threatened to reopen conflict between the Marian and Sullan factions at Rome.[61] Cicero defended the use of force as being authorised by asenatus consultum ultimum, which would prove similar to his own use of force under such conditions.[61]
Most famously – in part because of his own publicity[58] – he thwarted a conspiracy led byLucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow theRoman Republic with the help of foreign armed forces. Cicero procured asenatus consultum ultimum (a recommendation from the senate attempting to legitimise the use of force)[58] and drove Catiline from the city with four vehement speeches (theCatilinarian orations), which remain outstanding examples of his rhetorical style.[62] The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors clinging to Catiline as a final and desperate hope. Cicero demanded that Catiline and his followers leave the city. At the conclusion of Cicero's first speech (which was made in theTemple of Jupiter Stator), Catiline hurriedly left the Senate. In his following speeches, Cicero did not directly address Catiline. He delivered the second and third orations before the people, and the last one again before the Senate. By these speeches, Cicero wanted to prepare the Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Catiline.[63]
Catiline fled and left behind his followers to start the revolution from within while he himself assaulted the city with an army of "moral and financial bankrupts, or of honest fanatics and adventurers".[64] It is alleged that Catiline had attempted to involve theAllobroges, a tribe ofTransalpine Gaul, in their plot, but Cicero, working with the Gauls, was able to seize letters that incriminated the five conspirators and forced them to confess in front of theSenate.[65] The senate then deliberated upon the conspirators' punishment. As it was the dominant advisory body to the variouslegislative assemblies rather than ajudicial body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile – the standard options – would not remove the threat to the state. At firstDecimus Junius Silanus spoke for the "extreme penalty"; but during the debate many were swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried the precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various Italian towns.Cato the Younger then rose in defense of the death penalty and the Senate finally agreed on the matter, and came down in support of the death penalty. Cicero had the conspirators taken to theTullianum, the notorious Roman prison, where they were strangled. Cicero himself accompanied the former consulPublius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, one of the conspirators, to the Tullianum.[66]
Cicero received the honorific "pater patriae" for his efforts to suppress the conspiracy,[67] but lived thereafter in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial.[68] While thesenatus consultum ultimum gave some legitimacy to the use of force against the conspirators,[b] Cicero also argued that Catiline's conspiracy, by virtue of its treason, made the conspirators enemies of the state and forfeited the protections intrinsically possessed by Roman citizens.[61] The consuls moved decisively. Antonius Hybrida was dispatched to defeat Catiline in battle that year, preventingCrassus or Pompey from exploiting the situation for their own political aims.[69]
After the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment.[70] Some of his political enemies argued that though the act gained Cicero popularity, he exaggerated the extent of his success. He overestimated his popularity again several years later after being exiled from Italy and then allowed back from exile. At this time, he claimed that the republic would be restored along with him.[71]
Shortly after completing his consulship, in late 62 BC, Cicero arranged the purchase of a large townhouse on thePalatine Hill previously owned by Rome's richest citizen, Marcus Licinius Crassus.[72] To finance the purchase, Cicero borrowed some two millionsesterces fromPublius Cornelius Sulla, whom he had previously defended from court.[73][72] Cicero boasted his house was"in conspectu prope totius urbis" ("in sight of nearly the whole city"), only a short walk from theRoman Forum.[74]
In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called theFirst Triumvirate. Cicero refused the invitation because he suspected it would undermine the Republic,[75] and because he was strongly opposed to anything unconstitutional that limited the powers of the consuls and replaced them with non-elected officials.
During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, the triumvirate had achieved many of their goals of land reform, publicani debt forgiveness, ratification of Pompeian conquests, etc. With Caesar leaving for his provinces, they wished to maintain their hold on politics. They engineered the adoption of patricianPublius Clodius Pulcher into a plebeian family and had him elected as one of the tentribunes of the plebs for 58 BC.[76] Clodius used the triumvirate's backing to push through legislation that benefited them. He introduced several laws (theleges Clodiae) that made him popular with the people, strengthening his power base, then he turned on Cicero. Clodius passed a law which made it illegal to offer "fire and water" (i.e. shelter or food) to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, was clearly the intended target.[77] Furthermore, many believed that Clodius acted in concert with the triumvirate who feared that Cicero would seek to abolish many of Caesar's accomplishments while consul the year before. Cicero argued that thesenatus consultum ultimum indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey.[78]
Cicero grew out his hair, dressed in mourning and toured the streets. Clodius' gangs dogged him, hurling abuse, stones and even excrement. Hortensius, trying to rally to his old rival's support, was almost lynched. The Senate and the consuls were cowed. Caesar, who was still encamped near Rome, was apologetic but said he could do nothing when Cicero brought himself to grovel in the proconsul's tent. Everyone seemed to have abandoned Cicero.[79]
After Clodius passed a law to deny to Cicero fire and water (i.e. shelter) within four hundred miles of Rome, Cicero went into exile.[77] He arrived atThessalonica, on 23 May 58 BC.[80][81][82] In his absence, Clodius, who lived next door to Cicero on the Palatine, arranged for Cicero's house to be confiscated by the state, and was even able to purchase a part of the property in order to extend his own house.[74] After demolishing Cicero's house, Clodius had the land consecrated and symbolically erected a temple of Liberty (aedes Libertatis) on the vacant land.[83]
Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. But what is there to live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflictions surpass any you ever heard of earlier".[84] After the intervention of recently elected tribuneTitus Annius Milo, acting on the behalf of Pompey who wanted Cicero as aclient,[77] the Senate voted in favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast the single vote against the decree. Cicero returned to Italy on 5 August 57 BC, landing atBrundisium.[85] He was greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia.[86] In hisOratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices, Cicero convinced theCollege of Pontiffs to rule that the consecration of his land was invalid, thereby allowing him to regain his property and rebuild his house on the Palatine.[87][88]
Cicero tried to re-enter politics as an independent operator,[77] but his attempts to attack portions of Caesar's legislation were unsuccessful[76] and encouraged Caesar to re-solidify his political alliance with Pompey and Crassus.[89] Theconference at Luca in 56 BC left the three-man alliance in domination of the republic's politics; this forced Cicero to recant and support the triumvirate out of fear from being entirely excluded from public life.[90] After the conference, Cicero lavishly praised Caesar's achievements, got the Senate to vote a thanksgiving for Caesar's victories, and grant money to pay his troops.[91] He also delivered a speech 'On the consular provinces' (Latin:de provinciis consularibus)[90] which checked an attempt by Caesar's enemies to strip him of his provinces in Gaul.[92] After this, a cowed Cicero concentrated on his literary works. It is uncertain whether he was directly involved in politics for the following few years.[93] His legal work largely consisted of defending allies of the rulingtriumvirs and his own personal friends and allies;he defended his former pupilMarcus Caelius Rufus against a charge of murder in 56.[94] Under the influence of the triumvirs, he had also defended his former enemiesPublius Vatinius (in August 54 BCE),Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (between July and September) and Gnaeus Plancius (with thePro Plancio) in September, which weakened his prestige and sparked attacks on his integrity: Luca Grillo has suggested these cases as the source of the poetCatullus's double-edged comment that Cicero was "the best defender of anybody".[95]
In 51 BC he reluctantly accepted apromagistracy (as proconsul) inCilicia for the year; there were few other former consuls eligible as a result of a legislative requirement enacted by Pompey in 52 BC specifying an interval of five years between a consulship or praetorship and aprovincial command.[97][98] He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51 BC, arriving in the provinces three months later around August.[97]
In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus had been defeated by theParthians at theBattle of Carrhae. This opened the Roman East for a Parthian invasion, causing unrest in Syria and Cilicia. Cicero restored calm by his mild system of government. He discovered that a great amount of public property had been embezzled by corrupt previous governors and members of their staff, and did his utmost to restore it. Thus he greatly improved the condition of the cities.[99] He retained the civil rights of, and exempted from penalties, the men who gave the property back.[100] Besides this, he was extremely frugal in his outlays for staff and private expenses during his governorship, and this made him highly popular among the natives.[101]
Besides his activity in ameliorating the hard pecuniary situation of the province, Cicero was also creditably active in the military sphere. Early in his governorship he received information that princePacorus, son ofOrodes II the king of the Parthians, had crossed theEuphrates, and was ravaging the Syrian countryside and had even besiegedCassius (the interim Roman commander in Syria) inAntioch.[102] Cicero eventually marched with two understrength legions and a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry to Cassius's relief. Pacorus and his army had already given up on besieging Antioch and were heading south through Syria, ravaging the countryside again. Cassius and his legions followed them, harrying them wherever they went, eventually ambushing and defeating them near Antigonea.[103]
Another large troop of Parthian horsemen was defeated by Cicero's cavalry who happened to run into them while scouting ahead of the main army. Cicero next defeated some robbers who were based onMount Amanus and was hailed asimperator by his troops. Afterwards he led his army against the independent Cilician mountain tribes, besieging their fortress ofPindenissum. It took him 47 days to reduce the place, which fell in December.[104] On 30 July 50 BC Cicero left the province[105] to his brotherQuintus, who had accompanied him on his governorship as hislegate.[106] On his way back to Rome he stopped in Rhodes and then went to Athens, where he caught up with his old friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and met men of great learning.[107]
Cicero arrived in Rome on 4 January 49 BC.[105] He stayed outside thepomerium, to retain his promagisterial powers: either in expectation of a triumph or to retain his independent command authority in the coming civil war.[105] The struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC. Cicero favored Pompey, seeing him as a defender of the senate and Republican tradition, but at that time avoided openly alienating Caesar.[108] When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking an endorsement by a senior senator, courted Cicero's favor, but even so Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled toDyrrhachium where Pompey's staff was situated.[109] Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces toPharsalus inMacedonia in 48 BC,[110] though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian side. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to the cause of theoptimates if he had stayed in Rome. After Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August, Cicero refused to take command of the Pompeian forces and continue the war.[111] He returned to Rome, still as a promagistrate with hislictors, in 47 BC, and dismissed them upon his crossing the pomerium and renouncing his command.[111]
In a letter toVarro onc. 20 April 46 BC, Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. Cicero, however, was taken by surprise when theLiberatores assassinated Caesar on theides of March, 44 BC. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to restore the republic when he lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination.[112] A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC toTrebonius, one of the conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!"[113][114] Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability following the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree not to declare Caesar to have been atyrant, which allowed the Caesarians to have lawful support and kept Caesar's reforms and policies intact.[115]
Marcus Tullius Cicero dragged from his litter and assassinated by soldiers under the command of Mark Antony 43 BC (1880 illustration)
In April 43 BC, "diehard republicans" may have revived the ancient position ofprinceps senatus (leader of the senate) for Cicero. This position had been very prestigious until theconstitutional reforms of Sulla in 82–80 BC, which removed most of its importance.[116]
On the other side, Antony was consul and leader of the Caesarian faction, and unofficial executor of Caesar's public will. Relations between the two were never friendly and worsened after Cicero claimed that Antony was taking liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. Octavian was Caesar's adopted son and heir. After he returned to Italy, Cicero began to play him against Antony. He praised Octavian, declaring he would not make the same mistakes as his father. He attacked Antony in a series of speeches he called thePhilippics,[117] named after Demosthenes's denunciations ofPhilip II of Macedon. At the time, Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled.[118]
The Vengeance of Fulvia by Francisco Maura y Montaner, 1888 depicting Fulvia inspecting the severed head of Cicero
Cicero supportedDecimus Junius Brutus Albinus as governor ofCisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. The speech ofLucius Piso, Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege ofMutina, which was in the hands of Decimus Brutus. Cicero's plan to drive out Antony failed. Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied withLepidus to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles ofForum Gallorum andMutina. The alliance came into official existence with thelex Titia, passed on 27 November 43 BC, which gave each triumvir a consularimperium for five years. The Triumvirate immediately began a proscription of their enemies, modeled afterthat of Sulla in 82 BC. Cicero and all of his contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state, even though Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list.[119]
Cicero's death (France, 15th century)
Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was caught on 7 December 43 BC leaving his villa inFormiae in alitter heading to the seaside, where he hoped to embark on a ship destined for Macedonia.[120] When his killers – Herennius (a Centurion) and Popilius (a Tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said they had not seen him, but he was given away by Philologus, afreedman of his brother Quintus Cicero.[120]
Ego vero consisto. Accede, veterane, et, si hoc saltim potes recte facere, incide cervicem. I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much properly, sever this neck.[121]
He bowed to his captors, leaning his head out of the litter in a gladiatorial gesture to ease the task. By baring his neck and throat to the soldiers, he was indicating that he would not resist. According to Plutarch, Herennius first slew him, then cut off his head. On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed along with his head on theRostra in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition ofMarius and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. Cicero was the only victim of the proscriptions who was displayed in that manner. According toCassius Dio, in a story often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch,[122] Antony's wifeFulvia took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.[123]
Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as a consul in 30 BC, avenged his father's death, to a certain extent, when he announced to the Senate Mark Antony's naval defeat atActium in 31 BC by Octavian.[124]
Octavian is reported to have praised Cicero as a patriot and a scholar of meaning in later times, within the circle of his family.[125] However, it was Octavian's acquiescence that had allowed Cicero to be killed, as Cicero was condemned by the new triumvirate.[126]
Cicero's career as a statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in response to changes in the political climate. His indecision may be attributed to his sensitive and impressionable personality; he was prone to overreaction in the face of political and private change.[127] "Would that he had been able to endure prosperity with greater self-control, and adversity with more fortitude!" wroteC. Asinius Pollio, a contemporary Roman statesman and historian.[128][129]
Cicero marriedTerentia probably at the age of 27, in 79 BC. According to theupper-classmores of the day it was a marriage of convenience but lasted harmoniously for nearly 30 years. Terentia's family was wealthy, probably theplebeian noble house of Terenti Varrones, thus meeting the needs of Cicero's political ambitions in both economic and social terms. She had a half-sister named Fabia, who as a child had become aVestal Virgin, a great honour. Terentia was a strong-willed woman and (citing Plutarch) "took more interest in her husband's political career than she allowed him to take in household affairs".[130]
In the 50s BC, Cicero's letters to Terentia became shorter and colder. He complained to his friends that Terentia had betrayed him but did not specify in which sense. Perhaps the marriage could not outlast the strain of the political upheaval in Rome, Cicero's involvement in it, and various other disputes between the two. The divorce appears to have taken place in 51 BC or shortly before.[131] In 46 or 45 BC,[132] Cicero married a young girl, Publilia, who had been hisward. It is thought that Cicero needed her money, particularly after having to repay thedowry of Terentia, who came from a wealthy family.[133]
Although his marriage to Terentia was one of convenience, it is commonly known that Cicero held great love for his daughterTullia.[134] When she suddenly became ill in February 45 BC and died after having seemingly recovered from giving birth to a son in January, Cicero was stunned. "I have lost the one thing that bound me to life," he wrote to Atticus.[135] Atticus told him to come for a visit during the first weeks of hisbereavement, so that he could comfort him when his pain was at its greatest. In Atticus's large library, Cicero read everything that theGreek philosophers had written about overcoming grief, "but my sorrow defeats all consolation."[136] Caesar andBrutus, as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus, sent him letters of condolence.[137][138]
Cicero hoped that his sonMarcus would become a philosopher like him, but Marcus himself wished for amilitary career. He joined the army ofPompey in 49 BC, and after Pompey's defeat atPharsalus 48 BC, he was pardoned by Caesar. Cicero sent him to Athens to study as a disciple of theperipatetic philosopherKratippos in 48 BC, but he used this absence from "his father's vigilant eye" to "eat, drink, and be merry."[139] After Cicero's death, he joined the army of theLiberatores but was later pardoned byAugustus. Augustus's badconscience for having given in to Cicero's being put on theproscription list during theSecond Triumvirate led him to aid considerably Marcus Minor's career. He became anaugur and was nominatedconsul in 30 BC together with Augustus. As such, he was responsible for revoking the honors ofMark Antony, who was responsible for the proscription and could in this way take revenge. Later he was appointedproconsul ofSyria and the province of Asia.[140]
Henry VIII's childhood copy ofDe Officiis, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne Prynce Henry"
Cicero has been traditionally considered the master of Latin prose, withQuintilian declaring that Cicero was "not the name of a man, but of eloquence itself."[141] The English wordsCiceronian (meaning "eloquent") andcicerone (meaning "local guide") derive from his name.[142][143] He is credited with transforming Latin from a modest utilitarian language into a versatile literary medium capable of expressing abstract and complicated thoughts with clarity.[144] Julius Caesar praised Cicero's achievement by saying "it is more important to have greatly extended the frontiers of the Roman spirit than the frontiers of the Roman empire".[145] According toJohn William Mackail, "Cicero's unique and imperishable glory is that he created the language of the civilized world, and used that language to create a style which nineteen centuries have not replaced, and in some respects have hardly altered."[146]
Cicero was also an energetic writer with an interest in a wide variety of subjects, in keeping with theHellenistic philosophical and rhetorical traditions in which he was trained. The quality and ready accessibility of Ciceronian texts favored very wide distribution and inclusion in teaching curricula, as suggested by a graffito at Pompeii, admonishing: "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".[147]
Cicero was greatly admired by influentialChurch Fathers such asAugustine of Hippo, who credited Cicero'slostHortensius for his eventual conversion to Christianity,[148] and St.Jerome, who had a feverish vision in which he was accused of being "follower of Cicero and not of Christ" before the judgment seat.[149]
This influence further increased after theEarly Middle Ages in Europe, where more of his writings survived than any other Latin author's. Medieval philosophers were influenced by Cicero's writings onnatural law and innate rights.[150][additional citation(s) needed]
Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters provided the impetus for searches for ancient Greek and Latin writings scattered throughout European monasteries, and the subsequent rediscovery ofclassical antiquity led to theRenaissance. Subsequently, Cicero became synonymous with classical Latin to such an extent that a number of humanist scholars began to assert that no Latin word or phrase should be used unless it appeared in Cicero's works, a stance criticised byErasmus.[151]
His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European culture.Cornelius Nepos, the first century BC biographer of Atticus, remarked that Cicero's letters contained such a wealth of detail "concerning the inclinations of leading men, the faults of the generals, and the revolutions in the government" that their reader had little need for a history of the period.[152]
Cicero was especially popular with thePhilosophes of the 18th century, includingEdward Gibbon,Diderot,David Hume,Montesquieu, andVoltaire.[155] Gibbon wrote of his first experience reading the author's collective works thus: "I tasted the beauty of the language; I breathed the spirit of freedom; and I imbibed from his precepts and examples the public and private sense of a man...after finishing the great author, a library of eloquence and reason, I formed a more extensive plan of reviewing the Latin classics..."[156]
Voltaire called Cicero "the greatest as well as the most elegant of Roman philosophers" and even staged a play based on Cicero's role in theCatilinarian conspiracy, calledRome Sauvée, ou Catilina, to "make young people who go to the theatre acquainted with Cicero."[157] Voltaire was spurred to pen the drama as a rebuff to his rivalClaude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon's own playCatilina, which had portrayed Cicero as a coward and villain who hypocritically married his own daughter to Catiline.[158]
Montesquieu produced his "Discourse on Cicero" in 1717, in which he heaped praise on the author because he rescued "philosophy from the hands of scholars, and freed it from the confusion of a foreign language".[159] Montesquieu went on to declare that Cicero was "of all the ancients, the one who had the most personal merit, and whom I would prefer to resemble."[158][160]
Cicero the republican inspired theFounding Fathers of the United States and the revolutionaries of theFrench Revolution.[161]John Adams said, "As all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united than Cicero, his authority should have great weight."[162]Thomas Jefferson names Cicero as one of a handful of major figures who contributed to a tradition "of public right" that informed his draft of the Declaration of Independence and shaped American understandings of "the common sense" basis for the right of revolution.[163]Camille Desmoulins said of the French republicans in 1789 that they were "mostly young people who, nourished by the reading of Cicero at school, had become passionate enthusiasts for liberty".[164]
In the modern era, AmericanlibertarianJim Powell starts his history of liberty with the sentence: "Marcus Tullius Cicero expressed principles that became the bedrock of liberty in the modern world."[165]
Likewise, no other ancient personality has inspired as much venomous dislike as Cicero, especially in more modern times.[166] His commitment to the values of the Republic accommodated a hatred of the poor and persistent opposition to the advocates and mechanisms of popular representation.[167]Friedrich Engels referred to him as "the most contemptible scoundrel in history" for upholding republican "democracy" while at the same time denouncing land and class reforms.[168] Cicero has faced criticism for exaggerating the democratic qualities of republican Rome, and for defending the Roman oligarchy against the popular reforms of Caesar.[169]Michael Parenti admits Cicero's abilities as an orator, but finds him a vain, pompous and hypocritical personality who, when it suited him, could show public support for popular causes that he privately despised. Parenti presents Cicero's prosecution of the Catiline conspiracy as legally flawed at least, and possibly unlawful.[170]
Cicero also had an influence on modern astronomy.Nicolaus Copernicus, searching for ancient views on earth motion, said that he "first ... found in Cicero thatHicetas supposed the earth to move."[171]
Notably, "Cicero" was the name attributed to size 12 font in typesetting table drawers. For ease of reference, type sizes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 20 were all given different names.[172]
Cicero was declared arighteous pagan by theEarly Church.[173] Subsequent Roman and medieval Christian writers quoted liberally from his worksDe re publica (On the Commonwealth) andDe Legibus (On the Laws), and much of his work has been recreated from these surviving fragments. Cicero also articulated an early, abstract conceptualization of rights, based on ancient law and custom. Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of seven on philosophy.[174] Of his speeches, 88 were recorded, but only 52 survive.[c][175]
Cicero's great repute in Italy has led to numerous ruins being identified as having belonged to him, though none have been substantiated with absolute certainty. InFormia, two Roman-era ruins are popularly believed to be Cicero's mausoleum, theTomba di Cicerone, and the villa where he was assassinated in 43 BC. The latter building is centered around a central hall with Doric columns and a coffered vault, with a separatenymphaeum, on five acres of land near Formia.[176] A modern villa was built on the site after the Rubino family purchased the land fromFerdinand II of the Two Sicilies in 1868. Cicero's supposed tomb is a 24-meter (79 feet) tall tower on anopus quadratum base on the ancient Via Appia outside of Formia. Some suggest that it is not in fact Cicero's tomb, but a monument built on the spot where Cicero was intercepted and assassinated while trying to reach the sea.[177]
InPompeii, a large villa excavated in the mid 18th century just outside the Herculaneum Gate was widely believed to have been Cicero's, who was known to have owned a holiday villa in Pompeii he called hisPompeianum. The villa was stripped of its fine frescoes and mosaics and then re-buried after 1763 – it has yet to be re-excavated.[178] However, contemporaneous descriptions of the building from the excavators combined with Cicero's own references to hisPompeianum differ, making it unlikely that it is Cicero's villa.[179]
In Rome, the location of Cicero's house has been roughly identified from excavations of the Republican-era stratum on the northwestern slope of the Palatine Hill.[180][181] Cicero'sdomus has long been known to have stood in the area, according to his own descriptions and those of later authors, but there is some debate about whether it stood near the base of the hill, very close to the Roman Forum, or nearer to the summit.[180][182] During his life the area was the most desirable in Rome, densely occupied with Patrician houses including theDomus Publica of Julius Caesar and the home of Cicero's mortal enemy Clodius.[183]
In the historical novel seriesMasters of Rome,Colleen McCullough presents a not-so-flattering depiction of Cicero's career, showing him struggling with an inferiority complex and vanity, morally flexible and fatally indiscreet, while his rival Julius Caesar is shown in a more approving light.[191] Cicero is portrayed as a hero in the novelA Pillar of Iron byTaylor Caldwell (1965).Robert Harris' novelsImperium,Lustrum (published under the nameConspirata in the United States) andDictator comprise a three-part series based on the life of Cicero. In these novels Cicero's character is depicted in a more favorable way than in those of McCullough, with his positive traits equaling or outweighing his weaknesses (while conversely Caesar is depicted as more sinister than in McCullough).[192] Cicero is a major recurring character in theRoma Sub Rosa series of mystery novels bySteven Saylor.[193] He also appears several times as a peripheral character inJohn Maddox Roberts'SPQR series.[194]
^Wiedemann describes the senatus consultum ultimum by the late republic as "little more than a fig-leaf by those who could muster a majority in the senate ... to legitimate the use of force".[61]
^Sources vary, but seem to indicate that 52 survived in whole and 6 more in part
^Harrison, Stephen (2008).A Companion to Latin Literature. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31.ISBN978-1-4051-3737-9.Archived from the original on 19 June 2024. Retrieved9 September 2020.Latin literature in the period 90–40 BC presents one feature that is unique in Classical, and perhaps even in the whole of Western, literature. Although it is a period from which a substantial amount of literature in a wide variety of genres survives, more than 75 per cent of that literature was written by a single man: Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero wrote speeches, philosophical and rhetorical trea- tises, letters and poetry, which in terms of quantity outweigh all other extant writings of the period.
^Merriam-Webster, Inc (1995)."Ciceronian period".Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature. Merriam-Webster. p. 244.ISBN978-0-87779-042-6. Retrieved27 August 2013.
^Conte, G.B.: "Latin Literature: a history" (1987) p. 199
^Cf. C.J. Dowson (2023),Philosophia Translata: The Development of Latin Philosophical Vocabulary through Translation from Greek. Brill: Leiden-Boston, pp. 314ff
^Nicgorski, Walter."Cicero and the Natural Law". Natural Law, Natural Rights, and American Constitutionalism.Archived from the original on 14 January 2014. Retrieved3 May 2012.
^Shackleton Bailey, D. R. (1999). Introduction.Letters to Atticus. By Cicero. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 1. Translated by Shackleton Bailey, D. R. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 3.Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC at his family home near the hill town of Arpinum (still Arpino) about seventy miles to the east of Rome.
^Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 3–9, vol. 2, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 129ff
^Tempest 2011, p. 32. See alsoCicero (1930).Pro Quinctio. Translated by Freese, J J.Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved10 April 2023.
^Tempest 2011, p. 39.Plut.Cic., 5.1–2 claims that Cicero was unpopular and received a warning against oratory from the oracle at Delphi; this is unlikely and contradicted by Cicero's own claims.
^"The Italian Academy".The Curious Case of the Tomb of Archimedes.Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved2 February 2024.
^Verres was governor of Sicily for three years, 73–71 BC.Broughton 1952, pp. 112, 119, 124. Prior to Verres, Sextus Peducaeus and Gaius Licinius Sacerdos had served as Sicilianpropraetores (75 and 74 BC, respectively).Broughton 1952, pp. 98, 104.
^Shapiro, Susan O. (2005).O Tempora! O Mores! Cicero's Catilinarian orations; a student edition with historical essays. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 193.ISBN9780806136622.
^Englert, Walter (2010)."Cicero". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN9780195388398. Retrieved23 July 2024 – via Oxford Reference. On Caelius's case, seeBerry, Dominic H. (2020).Cicero's Catilinarians. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. xx.ISBN9780195326468..
^Plutarch."Life of Caesar".University of Chicago. p. 575.Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved19 February 2021.It was Cicero who proposed the first honours for [Caesar] in the senate, and their magnitude was, after all, not too great for a man; but others added excessive honours and vied with one another in proposing them, thus rendering Caesar odious and obnoxious even to the mildest citizens because of the pretension and extravagance of what was decreed for him.
^Hasan Niyazi,From Pompeii to Cyberspace – Transcending barriers with Twitter"Account Suspended". Archived fromthe original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved7 September 2012.
^Peter Gay (1966).The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 105.
^Peter Gay (1966).The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 56.
^Peter Gay (1966).The Enlightenment: An Interpretation. W.W. Norton. p. 106.
^abMatthew Sharpe.Cicero, Voltaire and the philosophes in the French Enlightenment. p. 329.
^Montesquieu.Discourse on Cicero. Political Theory Vol. 30, No. 5. pp. 733–737.
^Montesquieu.Discourse on Cicero. Political Theory Vol. 30, No. 5. p. 734.
^De Burgh, W.G., "The legacy of the ancient world"
^American republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United StatesMortimer N. S. Sellers, NYU Press, 1994
^Thomas Jefferson, "Letter to Henry Lee," 8 May 1825, in The Political Thought of American Statesmen, eds. Morton Frisch and Richard Stevens (Itasca, Ill.: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 1973), 12.
^Parenti, Michael (2004).The assassination of Julius Caesar: a people's history of ancient Rome. New York: New Press. pp. 93,107–11.ISBN978-1-56584-797-2.
^Tomiša, Mario. "The Impact of the Historical Development of Typography on Modern Classification of Typefaces".Tehnicki Vjesnik- Strojarski Fakultet. Varaždin, Croatia: 906.ISSN1330-3651.
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