Marble is ametamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonlycalcite (CaCO3) ordolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure.[1] It has acrystalline texture, and is typically notfoliated (layered), although there are exceptions.
Ingeology, the termmarble refers to metamorphosedlimestone, but its use instonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone.[2]
Pure white marble arises from very clean limestone or rock also calleddolomite. However, its signature veins and swirls result from impurities like clay, sand,iron oxides, orchert originally present in theprotolith—magnesium-rich varieties may show green tones due to serpentine. These impurities are redistributed and recrystallized during metamorphism.[1]
Because of its high hardness and strong wear resistance, and because it will not be deformed by temperature, marble is often used insculpture andconstruction.[3] In sculpture marble is ideal for fine detail due to its uniform grain, moderate hardness, and ability to scatter light beneath the surface (subsurface scattering), lending the sculpture a lifelike, waxy appearance.[4] In architecture marble is valued for its polishable surface, hardness, and wear resistance. In stonemasonry, "marble" may broadly include similar crystalline rocks, even if not true geological marble.[5]
The extraction of marble is performed by quarrying. Marble production is dominated by four countries: China, Italy, India and Spain, which account for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone.[6]
The word "marble" derives from theAncient Greekμάρμαρον (mármaron),[7] fromμάρμαρος (mármaros), "crystalline rock, shining stone",[8][9] perhaps from the verbμαρμαίρω (marmaírō), "to flash, sparkle, gleam";[10]R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a "Pre-Greek origin is probable".[11]
Thisstem is also the ancestor of theEnglish word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like."[12] While the English term "marble" resembles theFrenchmarbre, most otherEuropean languages (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek.[13]
Marble is a rock resulting frommetamorphism ofsedimentarycarbonate rocks, most commonlylimestone ordolomite. Metamorphism causes variable re-crystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonatecrystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock (protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed.[14]
Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls andveins of many colored marble varieties, sometimes calledstriations, are usually due to various mineral impurities such asclay,silt,sand,iron oxides, orchert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due toserpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite withsilica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.[15]
Acids react with the calcium carbonate in marble, producingcarbonic acid (which decomposes quickly to CO2 and H2O) and other soluble salts :[16]
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Outdoor marble statues,gravestones, or other marble structures are damaged byacid rain whether bycarbonation,sulfation or the formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles).[16] Vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided in the cleaning of marble products.
Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO3). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows a typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF6) andhydrochloric acid (HCl) taking place.
The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF6) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface.
The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H2C2O4), an organic acid. The resulting reaction is as follows:
In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC2O4) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed.[17]
Marble is a rock composed ofcalcium andmagnesium carbonate, mostly white and pink.[1] Common marble varieties are granular limestone ordolomite. Thehardness of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and theinternal stress disappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It is a popular building material.
The following table is a summary of the features of marble.[3]
White marble has been prized for its use insculptures[23] sinceclassical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relativeisotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the lowindex of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form.[24]
Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite,dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish.[25] More generally inconstruction, specifically thedimension stone trade, the termmarble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example,Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroonOrdovician limestone, thatgeologists call theHolston Formation.
The extraction of marble is performed byquarrying. Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods.[27] Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition.
Marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone.China andItaly were the world leaders, each representing 34% and 19% of world production respectively, followed byIndia andSpain produced 16% and 13% respectively.[6]
In 2018Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed byItaly with 18% andGreece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018 wasChina with a 64% market share, followed byIndia with 11% and Italy with 5%.[28]
White marbles throughout theMediterranean basin were widely utilized during theRoman period. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across theItalian Peninsula,mainland Greece, theAegean Islands,Asia Minor, and smaller hubs like those in theIberian Peninsula. The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to the widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, andsarcophagi. There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD.[29]
According to theUnited States Geological Survey, U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely groundcalcium carbonate and the rest wasconstruction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.
Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine would geologically be considered limestone.[30]
Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such assilicosis. Skin and eye problems are also a potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures.[31][30]
Dust,debris and temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees.[33] For the staff involved in marble processing, it is necessary to provideeye protection equipment, and it is recommended to improve the education of all workers onoccupational health risks and strengthen preventive measures.[33]
As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (seeclassical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material.[34]
Total worldquarrying production in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production.[33] In the process of marble mining and processing, around half of the excavated material will be waste, this is often then used as chips for flooring or wall finish, and uses for which high-calcium limestone is suitable.[1]
Marble[1] sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints.[36] Using groundcalcium carbonate as a filler in paint production can improve the brightness,hiding power and application performance of paint, and can also replace expensivepigments such astitanium dioxide.[36] Recycling of marble waste leads to a large amount of waste not being land-filled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment.
The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily scratched, and stained by colored liquids. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important.[37]
As a floor material, marble is easy to scratch. You can first use a vacuum cleaner to suck away the grit and dust on the marble floor, and then use a steam cleaner to remove other dirt.[38]
A mild, pH-neutral, non-abrasive soap should be used for cleaning marble surfaces. Wipe with a soft foam cotton or rag.[38]
Näckrosen (Water Lily), Stockholm 1892, by Swedish sculptorPer Hasselberg (1850–1894). Here a copy from 1953 in marble byGiovanni Ardini (Italy) placed in Rottneros Park nearSunne inVärmland/Sweden.
^Jensen, H. W., Marschner, S. R., Levoy, M., & Hanrahan, P. (2001). A practical model for subsurface light transport. Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '01), 511–518. ACM Press.https://doi.org/10.1145/383259.383319
^El-Goddy, A., & El-Gendy, N. (2023). A prediction method for abrasion loss rate of some Egyptian carbonate rocks due to cyclic salt crystallization weathering using physico-mechanical deterioration: Insights from laboratory investigations. Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40328-023-00401-2
^Doronina NV; Li TsD; Ivanova EG; Trotsenko IuA. (2005). "Methylophaga murata sp. nov.: a haloalkaliphilic aerobic methylotroph from deteriorating marble".Mikrobiologiia.74 (4):511–9.PMID16211855.
^Cappitelli F; Principi P; Pedrazzani R; Toniolo L; Sorlini C (2007). "Bacterial and fungal deterioration of the Milan Cathedral marble treated with protective synthetic resins".Science of the Total Environment.385 (1–3):172–81.Bibcode:2007ScTEn.385..172C.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.06.022.PMID17658586.
^"Marble", Britannica Online Encyclopaedia. Britannica.com.; Clarke, Michael,The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms, p.148, 2001, Oxford University Press,ISBN9780192800435
^Rathore, S. S.; Bhandari, S. (2006-03-30). "Controlled Fracture Growth by Blasting While Protecting Damages to Remaining Rock".Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering.40 (3):317–326.doi:10.1007/s00603-005-0080-5.ISSN0723-2632.S2CID55998785.
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