Amaqām (Arabic:مقام) is aMuslimshrine constructed at a site linked to a religious figure orsaint, commonly found in theLevant (oral-Shām), which comprises the present-day countries ofLebanon,Syria,Palestine, andIsrael. It is usually a funeral construction, commonly cubic-shaped and topped with adome.[1]
The cult for holy sites in Islamic Syria heightened during the 12th and 13th centuries, particularly underZangid andAyyubid rule. Historians attribute this surge to the political climate, notably theCrusades and the Muslim reconquest of the region. Funded by rulers and the elite, these shrines functioned as points of piety, attracting individuals from different levels of society, generating employment opportunities, and contributing to economic growth.[2] During this period, as demand increased, more sanctuaries emerged, some repurposed from Jewish and Christian holy sites, others built upon newly discovered tombs and relics, and some dedicated to honoring the graves of recentulama and revered holy men.[2]
Maqams continued to be revered sites in modern times as well. In the 19th century,Claude Reignier Conder described maqams as an essential part offolk religion in Palestine, with locals attaching immense importance to them.[3][non-primary source needed][neutrality isdisputed] Researchers have observed that alongside celebrated Muslim figures, some maqams can also be associated withancient Semiticpagan,Judaic,Samaritan, andChristian traditions.[4][5]
The maqams of Palestine were considered highly significant to the field ofbiblical archaeology, as their names were used in the 18th and 19th centuries to identify much ofbiblical geography.[6]
From Arabic literally "a place" or "station."[7] It is used to denote a "sanctuary", such as a commemorative burial shrine or an actual tomb.[7] Its meaning can be restricted only to built structures that can be entered at such sites.[7] The literal meaning ofmaqam is "the place where one stands."[7] Such name for a holy tomb is mostly used inLebanon,Syria andPalestine.
The formmukam appears in the essays of European travelers of the 19th century; as well as the wordswaly,wely (Arabic:ويليwālī "saint"),mazar, andmashhad.
InMaghreb, similar tombs are known asMarabout, in Turkic-speaking Muslim countries astürbe, dürbe, or aziz, and in Persian-speaking countriesdargah.
Maqams were dedicated toBiblical andQuranic, real ormythical, male and female figures from ancient times to the time of theArab conquest or even lateOttoman rule.[8] Ali Qleibo, a Palestiniananthropologist, states that this built evidence constitutes "an architectural testimony to Christian/Moslem Palestinian religious sensibility and its roots inancient Semitic religions."[5] In 1877, the British explorerClaude Reignier Conder wrote that:
It is in worship at these shrines that the religion of the peasantry consists. Moslem by profession, they often spend their lives without entering a mosque, and attach more importance to the favour and protection of the village Мukam than toAllah himself, or toMohammed hisprophet.[9]
Salah al-Houdalieh's study on Sheikh Shihab-Al-Din's maqam, which attracted rural Muslims from the village ofSaffa, Ramallah, showed that visitations usually consisted of ritual prayers, burials,Quran recitation, commemorating the sheikh, or making vows.[10] Every village in thePalestine region has awali orpatron saint, whom people, predominantly rural peasants, would call upon for help at his or her associatedsanctuary.[11] Whilewali can refer to both the saint and sanctuary, a sanctuary for a common saint is more precisely known as a maqam.[12]
The most popular type of maqam is a single chamber square building topped with a dome, in the middle of which there is a stone cenotaph,[13] though the revered figures themselves were buried below ground level. In the south wall of the maqam, there is usually a smallmihrab facingMecca, decorated with inscriptions and floral ornament. The entrance to the chamber is mostly at the north wall. In the other arched walls there are usually small windows. Candelabras and lamps are hanging in an active maqam, a cenotaph is covered by a quilt (usually a green one), praying rugs are spread on the floor in front of the mihrab.
There are also bigger maqams, consisting of two, three or four chambers:[14] prayer chamber, entrance hall, zawiya or a room for pilgrims to have a rest. Big maqams have two or three similar domes. In times of old, the dome was decorated by a metal spire with a crescent, but nowadays such decoration is rare.
The maqams do not always stand over the tombs of the saints to whom they are dedicated.
They are often situated near an ancientcarob oroak tree or a spring or rock cut water cistern.[5][15] ASacred tree was planted near maqams, mostly – a palm tree, oak orsycomore. There was also a well or spring. The location of maqams on or near these natural features is seen as indicative of ancient worship practices adapted by the local population and associated with religious figures.[16]
As a rule, maqams were built on hilltops or at crossroads. Besides functioning as a shrine and prayer place, they served as guard points and landmarks for travelers and caravans. Over the years, new burial places appeared near maqams; it was considered an honour to be buried next to a saint.
According toClaude Reignier Conder, many maqams are originated in Jewish and Christian traditions from before the advent of Islam in the region.[17] He identified seven types of maqams:[17]
In the seventh century, the ArabRashidunsconquered the Levant; they were later succeeded by other Arabic-speaking Muslim dynasties, including theUmayyads,Abbasids and theFatimids.[18] Early Islam disapproved worshipping of holy men and their burial places, considering it a sort ofidolatry. However, theShiites built sumptuous tombs for their deceased leaders –imams andsheikhs, and turned those tombs into religious objects. Very soonSunnis followed their example. Arab travellers and geographers‘Ali al-Harawi,Yaqut al-Hamawi and others described in their essays many Christian and Muslim shrines in Syria, Palestine and Egypt.
During the times ofMamluk dynasty, monumental tombs were built for Muslim holy men, scientists and theologists, some of these tombs have come down to present times. The major part of them is located in Egypt, and some parts are also in Syria and Palestine. These are namely the famousRachel's Tomb inBethlehem (though the burial place of matriarchRachel was worshipped even before), the splendid mausoleum ofAbu Hurairah inYavne[19] and the maqam of sheikh Abu ‘Atabi inAl-Manshiyya, Acre.
In theOttoman Empire times, maqams were constructed everywhere, and old sanctuaries were taken under restoration. New buildings were not as monumental and pompous as before, and looked quite unpretentious. In Turkish period, maqams had simple construction and almost no architectural décor.
Mosques were uncommon in Palestinian villages until the late 19th century, but practically every village had at least one maqam which served as sites of worship in the Palestinian folk Islam popular in the countryside over the centuries.[11][15] Christians and Jews also held some of the maqams to be holy, such as that ofNabi Samwil.[12] In the period of Ottoman rule over Palestine, most of these sites were visited collectively by members of all three faiths who often travelled together with provisions for a multi-day journey; by theMandate Palestine period, politicization led to segregation.[8] Some maqams, likeNabi Rubin andNabi Musa among others, were also the focus of seasonal festivals (mawsims) that thousands would attend annually.
There is, however, in nearly every village, a small whitewashed building with a low dome – the "mukam," or "place," sacred to the eyes of the peasants. In almost every landscape such a landmark gleams from the top of some hill, just as, doubtless, something of the same kind did in the old Canaanite ages.[20]
The period ofMandatory Palestine has become the last time of maqams' prosperity. Dilapidated Muslim shrines were restored, and also new ones were built. The British built over and donated toBedouins the maqam of Sheikh Nuran, which was damaged during theSinai and Palestine campaign. This maqam was in the battle epicentre during the1948 Arab–Israeli War. After having captured it, Israeli soldiers turned it into a watch and firing point. Since that time, the maqam of Sheikh Nuran has been a memorial for theIsrael Defense Forces.
After the State of Israel was formed, numerous shrines were turned into Jewish shrines. For example, theMausoleum of Abu Hurayra was transformed into the tomb of theGamaliel II inYavne;[21] the Maqam with seven domes ofAli inYazur was converted into asynagogue; themazar ofSakina bint Husayn inTiberias was reconsecrated as the tomb of Rachel, the spouse ofRabbi Akiva; the maqam of sheikh al-Gharbawi into the tomb ofMattathias; the muqam of Nabi Sheman near theJunction Eyal, was identified with the tomb ofSimeon (son of Jacob).
In ancient times, all maqams with the domes were coloured in white.[22] More recently,Palestinians andArab citizens of Israel coloured the domes of shrines green, a color associated with Muhammad. The battle for one or another shrine resulted in the "war of colours", as it was called in the press.[23] Religious Jews paint domes in blue or white and install Jewish symbols, and Muslims, when returning, remove the symbols and repaint the dome green.
No more than 300 maqams have survived out of 800 existing in Palestine in 1948, the remainder having been demolished. Half of them are in Israel-proper, the remainder in theWest Bank andGaza Strip; most of the West Bank has been under Israeli control since1967, and Gaza between 1967 and2005. According to another source, the number of Palestinian maqams left is 184, with only 70 remaining in Israel-proper.[24]
In their religious observances and sanctuaries we find, as in their language, the true history of the country. On a basis of polytheistic faith which most probably dates back to pre-Judaism times, we find a growth of the most heterogeneous description: Christian tradition, Moslem history and foreign worship are mingled so as often to be entirely indistinguishable, and the so-called Moslem is found worshipping at shrines consecrated to Jewish, Samaritan, Christian, and often Pagan memories. It is in worship at these shrines that the religion of the peasantry consists. Moslem by profession, they often spend their lives without entering a mosque, and attach more importance to the favour and protection of the village Mukam than to Allah, or to prophet Mohammed... The reverence shown for these sacred spots is unbounded. Every fallen stone from the building, every withered branch of the tree, is carefully preserved.
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