.jpg) Cheraman Juma Masjid, the first Mosque built by Malabar Muslims | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| c. 6 million (2011)[1][2] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Kerala,Lakshadweep,[3]Tulu Nadu,[4]Kodagu,States of Persian Gulf[5] | |
| Languages | |
| Malayalam (Arabi Malayalam)[6][7] | |
| Religion | |
 Sunni Islam | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Beary,Kodava Maaple,Malayalis,Marakkars,Sri Lankan Moors,Hadharem |
| Part ofa series on |
| Islam |
|---|
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Malabar Muslims orMuslim Mappilas are members of theMuslim community found predominantly inKerala and theLakshadweep islands in Southern India. The term Mappila (Ma-Pilla) is used to describe Malabar Muslims in Northern Kerala.[8][2][9][10] Muslims share the common language ofMalayalam with the other religious communities of Kerala.[11][12]
According to some scholars, the Malabar Muslims are the oldest settled native Muslim community inSouth Asia.[2][13] In general, a Muslim Mappila is a descendant ofHindu lower caste natives who converted to Islam.[14][15] Mappilas are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala. No Census Report where the Muslim communities were mentioned separately is also available.[16][clarification needed]
The Muslim community originated primarily as a result of West Asian contacts with Kerala, which was fundamentally based upon commerce ("the spice trade").[9] As per local tradition,Islam reached theMalabar Coast and Kerala as early as the 7th century AD.[11] Before being overtaken by the Europeans in the spice trade, Malabar Muslims were a prosperous trading community, settling mainly in the coastal urban centres of Kerala. The continuous interaction of Mappilas with theMiddle East has created a profound impact on their life, customs, and culture. This has resulted in the formation of a unique Indo-Islamic synthesis—within the large spectrum of Kerala culture—in literature, art, food, language, and music.[11][13]
Most Muslims in Kerala follow theShafi'i school, while a large minority follow movements such asSalafism.[17][18] Contrary to a popular misconception, thecaste system, like in other parts ofSouth Asia, does exist among the Muslims of Kerala. (Although all Muslims are allowed to worship in all Kerala mosques, certain communities are held in "lower status" to others.)[19] A number of different communities, some of them having distant ethnic roots, exist as status groups in Kerala.[20] Among the Mappilas, there are numerous social groups. Various factors such as intermarriage, migration and conversion had led to creation of these groups, these groups were Sayyids (Thangals),Keyis (Koyas), Baramis, Themims,Pusalars, andOssans found in different regions of Kerala.[21]
The nameMappila, otherwise transliterated as Māppila or Moplah, is a straightforward transliteration of the contemporaryMalayalam lexeme. Although its etymology is not established, it is usually assumed to have originally been an honorific, created by combining mahā ("great") with piḷḷa ("child").[22][23]
Traditionally, the name was given to foreign visitors and immigrants, includingChristian,Jews andMuslim as "Nazrane Mappila" and "Juda Mappila", respectively, either as a general term of respect or in a technical sense to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law."[23] The second sense implies a practice of intermarriage, a reading which is supported by current vernacular usage inMalayalam andTamil dialects.[22]
Other hypotheses, including those of anArabic etymology, have been proposed, but are not generally accepted. Mappila later became a name for the nativeMuslim community of Malabar, although it is still used sporadically of Syrian Christians who live in South Kerala.[22]
According to the 2011 census, about one-quarter of Kerala's population (26.56%) are Muslims.[2] The calculated Muslim population (2011) in Kerala state is 88,73,472. The number of Muslims in rural areas is only 42,51,787, against an urban population of 46,21,685.[1][2]
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The number of Muslims is particularly high in the northern Kerala (formerMalabar District).[2] Mappilas are also found inLakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea.[13] The Mappilas inhabiting the islands of Androth, Kavaratti, Agatti and Kalpeni in theLakshadweep were descended from Hindu migrants from the mainland who had converted to Islam in the fourteenth century.[21] A small number of Malayali Muslims have settled in the southern districts ofKarnataka, while the scattered presence of the community in major cities ofIndia can also be seen.[24] When the British supremacy on Malabar District was established, many Mappilas were recruited for employment in plantations inBurma,Assam and for manual labor inSouth East Asian concerns of the British Empire.[16] Diaspora groups of Mappilas are also found in Singapore and Malaysia.[13] Furthermore, a substantial proportion of Muslims have left Kerala to seek employment in the Middle East, especially inSaudi Arabia andUnited Arab Emirates.[24]
The2011 Census of India collected data on the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population.[25]
| District wise map of Kerala | District | Total Pop | Muslims | % of Pop | % of Muslims |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Kasargod | 1,307,375 | 486,913 | 37.24% | 5.49% |
| Kannur | 2,523,003 | 742,483 | 29.43% | 8.37% | |
| Wayanad | 817,420 | 234,185 | 28.65% | 2.64% | |
| Kozhikode | 3,086,293 | 1,211,131 | 39.24% | 13.65% | |
| Malappuram | 4,112,920 | 2,888,849 | 70.24% | 32.56% | |
| Palakkad | 2,809,934 | 812,936 | 28.93% | 9.16% | |
| Thrissur | 3,121,200 | 532,839 | 17.07% | 6.00% | |
| Ernakulam | 3,282,388 | 514,397 | 15.67% | 5.80% | |
| Idukki | 1,108,974 | 82,206 | 7.41% | 0.93% | |
| Kottayam | 1,974,551 | 126,499 | 6.41% | 1.43% | |
| Alappuzha | 2,127,789 | 224,545 | 10.55% | 2.53% | |
| Pathanamthitta | 1,197,412 | 55,074 | 4.60% | 0.62% | |
| Kollam | 2,635,375 | 508,500 | 19.30% | 5.73% | |
| Thiruvananthapuram | 3,301,427 | 452,915 | 13.72% | 5.10% | |
| All districts | 33,406,061 | 8,873,472 | 26.56% | 100.0% |
The Muslims present in Kerala were distinguished by the Portuguese historians into two groups:
The latter, also known as the "Paradesi Muslims", in fact came from all over the Islamic world.[26][27] They included Arabs, Persians, Egyptians, Turks, Iraqis, Gujaratis, Khorasanis and Deccanis (and Melakans, Sumatrans, Bengalis).[27][28] These Muslims were not unsettled navigators but had settled in Kerala. Historians hold differing views on the origin of the Mappila community, with no consensus on the matter.[29] A Mappila is either,
According toDuarte Barbosa, a Portuguese commercial agent, Mappilas were an indigenous Muslim community and displayed cultural affinity with Hindu castes likeNayars. He also made a distinction between them andPardeshis, who were mostly wealthy expatriate Arab merchants and not permanent residents of Kerala.[32]
Stephen Dale states thatBarbosa accurately "identified the two aspects of Muslim-Hindu social relations," which were the primary causes of the growth of Muslim society in later centuries when the number of Arab traders had dwindled with the arrival of the Portuguese and other European powers in the Indian Ocean. These two aspects were conversion and intermarriage, he argued that "the Heathen, if displeased with anything at all, become Moors." He also noted the frequency of multiple marriages among Muslims and their concubinage of lower-caste women as having served as the genesis of a local Malayalam speaking Mappila society.[32]
Till the 16th century, as noticed by the contemporary observers, Muslims settled mainly along the coastal tracts of Kerala (especially in major Kerala ports such asCalicut (Kozhikode),Cannanore (Kannur),Tanore (Tanur), Funan (Ponnani), Cochin (Kochi) andQuilon (Kollam)).[15][33] They were traditionally elite merchants who were all part of the brisk foreign trade.[15] Until well into the European period, the Muslims were almost exclusively concentrated in the port cities.[34] Middle Eastern sailors had to rely on lighterage at most of the Kerala ports in the medieval period. This led them to enter into mutually beneficial relationships with the traditional sea fishermen community. A large majority of fishermen, once low-caste Hindus, in northern Kerala now follow Islam.[34]
According to Dale, the "great majority" of conversions to Islam "must have come from lower castes," as lower castes, feeling degraded by the caste system, had the most reasons to convert, corroborating Zayn al-Din al-Malibari's attribution of conversion as the reason behind the rapid growth of Muslim settlements on the Malabar Coast.[32] After and during the Portuguese period, some of the Muslim merchants were forced to turn inland (Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.[33] Some acquired land and became landowners and some became agricultural labourers.[16] Between 16th and 20th centuries, the collective Mappila numbers increased rapidly in Malabar and Travancore and Kochi regions, chiefly by the conversion among the lower and 'outcaste' Hindu groups of theSouth Malabar interior.[33][35] The peak of the Muslim distribution in Kerala had gradually shifted to the interior Malabar District.[15] William Logan, comparing the Census Reports of 1871 and 1881, famously concluded that within ten years some 50,000 people from theCheruma community (former untouchables) converted to Islam.[16] Muslim growth in the 20th century has considerably outpaced that of the general Kerala population due to higher birth rates.[13][16]
During the British period the so-called Mappila Outbreaks,c. 1836–1921 led the officials to make and maintain a distinction between the interior Mappilas and the 'respectable' Mappila traders of the coastal cities, such asCalicut. The two other regional groupings are the high-status Muslim families ofCannanore in North Malabar — arguably converts from high caste Hindus — and the Muslims ofTravancore andCochin.[33] The Colonial administrates also kept a distinction between coastal and inland Mappilas of theSouth Malabar.[13][33]
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according toSumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[37][38]: 79 Kerala's spices attracted ancientArabs,Babylonians,Assyrians andEgyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period.[39]Arabs andPhoenicians were the first to enterMalabar Coast to tradeSpices.[39] The Arabs on the coasts ofYemen,Oman, and thePersian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and othereastern countries.[39] They must have brought theCinnamon of Kerala to theMiddle East.[39] The Greek historianHerodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolised by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[39]
Islam arrived inMalabar Coast, a part of the largerIndian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from theMiddle East.[39] It is generally agreed among scholars that Middle Eastern merchants frequented theMalabar Coast, which was the link between the West and ports of East Asia, even before Islam had been established in Arabia.[40][41] The western coast of India was the chief centre of Middle Eastern trading activities right from at least 4th century AD and by about 7th century AD, and several West Asian merchants had taken permanent residence in some port cities of the Malabar Coast. According to popular tradition,Islam was brought toLakshadweep, situated just to the west ofMalabar Coast, byUbaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island ofAndrott.[42] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns ofKerala. Arab writers such as Masudi of Baghdad (934–955 AD), Idrisi (1154 AD), Abul-Fida (1213 AD) and al-Dimishqi (1325 AD) mentions the Muslim communities in Kerala.[15] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Islamic community in South Asia.[43][44]
The Southwestern Coast of India was known as "Malabar" (a mixture ofMala and Arabic or PersianBarr, most probably) to the West Asians. Persian scholaral-Biruni (973–1052 AD) appears to have been the first to call the region by this name. Masudi of Baghdad (896–965 AD) speaks about the contacts between Malabar and Arabia. Authors such as Ibn Khurdad Beh (869 – 885 AD), Ahmad al Baladhuri (892 AD), and Abu Zayd of Ziraf (916 AD) mentions Malabar ports in their works.[45]
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Scholar C. N. Ahammad Moulavi has mentioned that he has seen at Irikkalur near Valapattanam a tombstone bearing the date 670 AD/Hijra 50 (it seems that the tombstone is now lost).[13] Inscriptions found on a tombstone on the beach outside the Juma'h Mosque in Panthalayani Kollam record the death of one Abu ibn Udthorman in Hijra 166. The mosque itself contains two medieval royal charters, one on a block of granite built into the steps of the mosque tank and another one a loose stone lying outside, of the Kodungallur Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladitya (962–1021 AD). The position of the royal Chera charter (in Old Malayalam) inside the mosque suggests that the city belonged to the Muslims or included them or came into their possession at a later stage.[13][16][45] A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.[13]
The earliest major epigraphic evidence of Muslim merchants in Kerala is a royal charter by Ayyan Atikal, the powerful governor of Kollam under the Chera king of Kodungallur. TheQuilon Syrian Copper Plate (c. 883 AD, "the Tabula Quilonensis"[34]) is written in Old Malayalam in Vatteluttu script, and concludes with a number of "signatures" in Kufic Arabic, Middle Persian in Pahlavi script and Judaeo-Persian. The charter shows Atikal, in presence of the royal representative from Kodungallur (prince Kota Ravi Vijayaraga) and regional civil and military officials, granting land and serfs to the Tarisapalli, built by Mar Sapir Iso, and conferring privileges onAnchuvannam andManigramam.[13] The attestation to the copper plates in theKufic script reads: "[And witness] to this Maymun ibn Ibrahim, Muhammad ibn Manih, Sulh [?Salih] ibn 'Ali, 'Uthaman ibn al-Marzuban, Muhammad ibn Yahya, 'Amr ibn Ibrahim, Ibrahim ibn al-Tayy, Bakr ibn Mansur, al-Qasim ibn Hamid, Mansur ibn 'Isa and, Isma'il ibn Ya'qub". The presence of non-Christian signatures and the names found in the charter prove that the associates of Mar Sapir Iso included Jews and Muslims too. Muslim Arabs and some Persians must have formed permanent settlements at Kollam by this period. The charter gives proof of the status and privileges of trading guilds in Kerala.[16][45][13] "Anjuvannam", mentioned in the copper plate, was a merchant association composed Christians, Jews and Muslims.[34]
In keeping with Kodungallur's significant role in the spice trade, the legends of Kerala Christians, Jews and Muslims all depict this port city as the focal point for the spread of their respective faiths. According to the legend of Cheraman Perumal, or as per one version of it, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD atKodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) ofChera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime ofMuhammad (c. 570–632).[46][47][43][48] Perumal's proselytisers, led by Malik ibn Dinar, established a series of mosques in his kingdom and north of it, thus facilitating the expansion of Islam in Kerala.[13][45] It is assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an Arabic manuscript of anonymous authorship known as "Qissat Shakarwati Farmad".[34] While there is no concrete historical evidence for this tradition, there can be little doubt of the early Muslim presence, and of the religious tolerance based on economic imperatives, on the Malabar Coast.[13] The account of conversion of Islam by the then Cheraman Perumal is generally considered apocryphal by mainstream scholars.[49]
First mosques of Malabar according to theQissat Shakarwati Farmad[50]
According to theQissat, the first mosque was built by Malik ibn Dinar in Kodungallur, while the rest of the mosques were founded by Malik ibn Habib.[26]
| Location | Qadi |
|---|---|
| Kalankallur (Kodungallur) | Muhammad ibn Malik |
| Kulam (Kollam) | Hasan ibn Malik |
| Hili (Madayi) | 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Malik |
| Fakanur/Makanur (Barkur) | Ibrahim ibn Malik |
| Manjalur (Mangalore) | Musa ibn Malik |
| Kanjarkut (Kasaragod) | Malik ibn Muhammad |
| Jurfatan/Jirfatan (Cannanore) | Shahab al-Din ibn 'Umar ibn Muhammad ibn Malik |
| Darmaftan (Dharmadam) | Hussayn ibn Muhammad ibn Malik al-Madani |
| Fandarinah (Panthalayani) | Sa'd al-Din ibn Malik al-Madani |
| Shaliyat (Chaliyam) | Zayn al-Din ibn Muhammad ibn Malik al-Madani |
It is believed thatMalik Dinar died atThalangara inKasaragod town.[51] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains anOld Malayalam inscription written in a mixture ofVatteluttu andGrantha scripts which dates back to the 10th century CE.[52] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by aHindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to theMuslims of Kerala.[52] The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within theMadayi Mosque records its foundation year as Hijra 518 (1124 AD).[53][13][16][45] The mosque in the heart of the old Chera capital, theKodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.[16][45]
The Middle Eastern Muslim traders and Kerala mercantile community went through a long period of peaceful intercultural growth till the arrival of the Portuguese explorers (early 16th century).[2][13]Quilon (Kollam) in south Kerala was the southernmost of the Kerala ports associated with black pepper. It served as the region's gateway to the eastern Indian Ocean. East and Southeast Asia were the primary markets for Kerala's main export, the spices, until at least the c. 15th century. In 1403, it seems that, theMing court first learned of the existence ofMalacca from one pepper merchant, a Muslim believed to have come from the Malabar Coast.[34][2]
According to Miller, from the very beginning, Hindu outcastes preferred working under wealthy Arab merchants, as this imposed fewer restrictions on them than they would have faced as outcastes.[21] Moroccan travellerIbn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[2] Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.[13] The monopoly of overseas spice trade in the Arabian Sea was safe with the Arab and Persian shipping magnates from the Malabar Coast.[54] Fortunes of these merchants depended on the political patronage of the native chiefs of Calicut (Kozhikode), Cannanore (Kannur), Cochin (Kochi), and Quilon (Kollam).[13] The chiefs of these tiny kingdoms derived a great part of their revenue from taxing the spice trade.[13] A 13th century granite inscription, in Old Malayalam and Arabic, atMuchundi Mosque in Calicut mentions a donation by the king to the mosque. The inscription is the only surviving historical document recording royal endowment by aHindu ruler, in the form of a grant, to the Muslim community in Kerala.[55][34]
By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak ofCalicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala.[34] Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by Muslims. The port commissioner, the "shah bandar", represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Batttutah mentions Shah Bandars in Calicut and Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar). The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean. The famous nakhuda Mishkal who possessed ships for the trade with China, Yemen and Persia was active in Calicut in the 1340s. But unlike in some of the other regions of the Indian Ocean, in Kerala, it seems that the nakhudas did not held any positions of commercial, communal leadership.[34] The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal, near Cannanore, who were the vassals of the Kolathiri, ruled over theLakshadweep.[56] Zayn al-Din Makhdum (c. 1498–1581) estimates that 10% of the population of Malabar was Muslim by the midpoint of the 16th century AD.[13] Samarqandi said that in Calicut he met Muslims among the "horde of infidels", and that both kings and beggars wear the same thing but that the Muslims wear fine clothing in the Arab fashion.[57]
The Middle Eastern Muslims controlled the lucrative western arm of the overseas long-distance trade (to the ports of theRed Sea, and thePersian Gulf) from the Malabar Coast. Export items across the Arabian Sea included spices such as pepper, ginger and cardamom, trans-shipped textiles, coconuts and associated products. Gold, copper, and silver, horses, silk and various aromatics were imported into Kerala. The native Muslims dominated the trade to Pegu, Mergui, Melaka (in Myanmar and Malaysia) and points east, and the Indian coastal trade (Canara, Malabar,Ceylon, Maldives and Coromandel Coast, and otherBay of Bengal shores) with the Chettis fromCoromandel Coast. Muslims, with Gujarati Vanias, also took part in the trade with ports of Gujarat.[27][26] The Indian coastal trade included goods such as coconuts, coir, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and rice. Rice was a major import item into Kerala, from the Canara and the Coromandel Coast. Low-value but high-volume trade in foodstuffs that passed through the Gulf of Mannar was also handled by the native Muslims.[26]
According to Stephen Dale, upcountry trade was carried mostly by Mappilas, many lower caste Hindus from the local countryside converted toIslam in the settlements established by them.[21]
The women from fisher and mariner castes often intermarried with Arabs. Andre Wink states that extensive conversion to Islam took place due to the history of trade, seafaring, and interaction with the Arabs. The Mukkuvans were among the communities that converted to Islam, becoming known as Pusalars.[21] Dale concludes that, in contrast to the influence of Sufis and other popular movements in the spread of Islam across the Asia, the Mappilas instead gradually grew through "peaceful conversion" due to the contradiction between a "dynamic, egalitarian mercantile" Muslim community and the "exceptionally conservative" version of the Hindu caste system.[32]
In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.[58] Following thediscovery of a direct sea route fromEurope toKozhikode in1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas betweenOrmus and theMalabar Coast and south toCeylon.[59][60] In the first two decades of16th century CE (c. 1500–1520), Portuguese traders were successful in reaching in agreements with the local Hindu chiefs and native Muslim (Mappila) merchants in Kerala. The major contradiction was between the Portuguese state and the Arab and Persian traders, and the Kingdom of Calicut.[26] In January1502, theFirst Battle of Cannanore between theThird Portuguese Armada andKingdom of Cochin underJoão da Nova and Zamorin ofKozhikode's navy marked the beginning of Portuguese conflicts in theIndian Ocean. The big Mappila traders in Cochin supplied large quantities of Southeast Asian spices to the Portuguese carracks.[26][27] These traders, along with the Syrian Christians, acted as brokers and intermediaries in the purchase of spices and in the sale of the goods brought from Europe.[27]Wealthy Muslim merchants of the Malabar Coast – including Mappilas – provided large credits to the Portuguese. These businessmen received large trading concessions, stipends and privileges in return. Interaction between the Portuguese private traders and Mappila merchants also continued to be tolerated by the Portuguese state.[34] Kingdom of Calicut, whose shipping was increasingly looted by the Portuguese, evolved into a centre of Muslim resistance.[34] In February1509, the defeat of the joint fleet of theSultan of Gujarat, theMamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, and theZamorin ofCalicut with support of theRepublic of Venice and theOttoman Empire inBattle of Diu marked the beginning ofPortuguese dominance of theSpice trade and theIndian Ocean.
Sooner rather than later, tensions arose between the wealthy Mappila traders of Cannanore and the Portuguese state. The ships of the Cannanore Mappilas again and again fell prey to the Portuguese sailors off the coast of Maldives, an important point between Southeast Asia and the Red Sea. Interests of the Portuguesecasado moradores in Cochin, now planning to capture the spice trade through the Gulf of Mannar and to Sri Lanka, came into the conflict with Mappilas and the (Tamil) Maraikkayars. The narrow gulf held the key to the trade to Bengal (especially Chittagong).[26] By the 1520s, open confrontations between the Portuguese and the Mappilas, from Ramanathapuram, and Thoothukudi to northern Kerala, and to western Sri Lanka, became a common occurrence.[56][26] The Mappila traders actively worked in even in the island ofSri Lanka to oppose the Portuguese. The Portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons off the Kerala ports and continued their raids on departing Muslim fleets at Calicut and Quilon.[27] After a series of naval battles, the once powerful Mappila chief was finally forced to sue for peace with the Portuguese in 1540. The peace was soon broken, with the assassination of the qazi of Cannanore Abu Bakr Ali (1545), and the Portuguese again came down hard on the Mappilas. In the meantime, the Portuguese also entered into friendship with some of the leading Middle Eastern merchants residing on the Malabar Coast (1550). The mantle of the Muslim resistance was now taken by the Ali Rajas of Cannanore, who even forced the king of Calicut to turn against the Portuguese once again.[26] By the close of the 16th century, the Ali Rajas had emerged as figures with as much influence in Kerala as the Kolathiri (Chirakkal Raja) himself.[27]
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Before the 16th century, Middle Eastern Muslims dominated the economic, social and religious affairs of Kerala Muslims. Many of these merchants fled Kerala in the course of the 16th century. The vacuum created economic opportunities for some Mappila traders, who also took on a greater role in the social and religious affairs in Malabar.[34] The Portuguese tried to establish a monopoly in the spice trade in India, using violent naval warfare.[64][65][66] Whenever a formal war was broke out between the Portuguese and the Calicut rulers, the Portuguese attacked and plundered, as the opportunity offered, the Muslim ports in Kerala. Small, lightly armed, and highly mobile vessels of the Mappilas remained a major threat to Portuguese shipping all along the west coast of India.[26][27] Mappila merchants, now controlling pepper trade in Calicut in the place of the West Asian Muslims, drew Mappila corsairs and used them to transport the spices past Portuguese blockades. Some Mappila traders even tried to outwit the Portuguese by reorienting their trade to Western Indian ports. Some chose an overland route, across the Western Ghats, for the export of spices.[34] By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese were finally able to deal with the "Mappila challenge". Kunjali Marakkar was defeated and killed, with the help of the Calicut ruler, in c. 1600 AD. The Ali Rajas of Cannanore was given permission to send ships to even to the Red Sea, as a way of ensuring their cooperation.[26] The relentless battles led to the eventual decline of the Muslim community in Kerala, as they gradually lost control of the spice trade. The Muslims — who had been depended solely on commerce — were reduced into severe economic perplexity. Some traders turned inland (South Malabar) in search of alternate occupations to commerce. The Muslims of Kerala gradually became a society of small traders, landless labourers and poor fishermen. The once affluent, and urban, Muslim population became predominantly rural in Kerala.[13][33]
TheTuhfat Ul Mujahideen written byZainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) ofPonnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written inArabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy ofKunjali Marakkar alongside theZamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to coloniseMalabar coast.[67] It was first printed and published inLisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library ofAl-Azhar University,Cairo.[68][69][70]Tuhfatul Mujahideen also describes the history of MappilaMuslim community of Kerala as well as the general condition ofMalabar Coast in the 16th century CE.[68] For decades, the Malabari Mappila Muslims which representing the Mughal empire are already patronizedAceh Sultanate.[71]
TheKingdom of Mysore, ruled by SultanHaider Ali, invaded and occupied northern Kerala in the late-18th century.[72] In the following Mysore rule of Malabar, Muslims were favoured against the high caste Hindu landlords. Some were able to obtain some land rights and administrative positions. There was a sharp increase in community's growth, especially through conversions from the "outcaste" society. However, such measures of the Mysore rulers only widened the communal imbalance of Malabar. The East India Company — taking advantage of the situation — allied with the Hindu high castes to fight against the occupied regime. The British subsequently won theAnglo-Mysore War against Mysore rulerTipu Sultan and, consequently, Malabar was organised as a district underMadras Presidency.[73]
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Conversion toIslam continued into theBritish period. In the 1871 census report, the Cherumars numbered 99,000, but in the following decade, their population dwindled to 64,725. The Cherumars, alow-caste Hindu peasant group, were mass-converted toIslam by Mappila peasants during the Mappila uprisings. L. R. S. Lakshmi states that the census report attributed this decline to conversions, which could be explained by the "poor economic conditions" among the Cherumars, who saw "possible work incentives available within the flourishing Mappila community." Despite converting toIslam, they continued to occupy a lower social position in the Mappila hierarchy.[21]
The discriminatory land tenure system — tracing its origins to pre modern Kerala — gave Muslims of Kerala (and other tenants and labourers) no access to land ownership.[2] This led to a series of violent attacks against the high caste landlords and colonial administration (the Mappila Outbreaks,c. 1836–1921[33]) and in 1921–22; it took in the form of an explosion known asMappila Uprising (Malabar Rebellion).[73][74] The uprising — which initially had the support ofIndian National Congress leaders such asMohandas K. Gandhi- was suppressed by the colonial government, withmartial law being temporarily instituted in the region and the leaders of the rebellion tried andexecuted.[13]
The Muslim material strength — along with the extent of modern education, theological "reform", and active participation in democratic process — recovered slowly after the 1921–22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in provincial and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Mappila literacy rate was only 5% in 1931. Even by 1947, only 3% of thetaluk officers in Malabar region were Muslim.[13]
The community was able to produce a number of high-regarded leaders in the following years. This includedMohammed Abdur Rahiman, andE. Moidu Moulavi of theCongress Party, and most crucially, the inspirationalK. M. Seethi Sahib (1898–1960). Although theMuslim League faded into memory in the rest of India, it remained a serious political force in the state of Kerala with leaders such asSyed Abdurrahiman Bafaki Tangal, P. M. S. A.Pukkoya Tangal, andC. H. Mohammed Koya.[13] K. O. Ayesha Bai, a member of Muslim community, the first Muslim women to rise to public fame in modern Kerala, became the Deputy Speaker of the CommunistKerala Assembly in 1957.[13]
Active participation in the state elections gave rise to a psychology of accommodation that took the Muslims into cooperate relationships with Hindus and Christians of Kerala. The Communist-lead Kerala government granted the wish of the Muslim League for the formation of a Muslim majority district in 1969.[13]University of Calicut, with the formerMalabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.[75]Calicut International Airport, currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.[76][77] AnIndian Institute of Management (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996 andNational Institute of Technology in 2002.[78]
Modern Mappila theological revisions and social reforms were initiated by Wakkom Maulavi (1873–1932) in Kollam. The Maulavi was initially influenced by Muḥammad 'Abduh and Rashīd Riḍā, and to some degree by the ideas of Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb. He notably encouraged the Mappilas to adopt English education.[13] Notable reformers such as K. M. Seethi Sahib (1898–1960), Khatib MuhammadK. M. Maulavi (1886–1964), E. K. Maulavi (1879–1974) and M. K. Haji carried his work forward to the modern age. K. M . Maulavi tried to spread the new ideas of southern Kerala to the more orthodox Malabar region. C. O. T. Kunyipakki Sahib, Maulavi Abussabah Ahmedali (died 1971), K. A. Jaleel,C. N. Ahmad Moulavi, and K. O. Ayesha Bai were other prominent social and political reformers of the 20th century. An organisation known as theMuslim Educational Society (MES), founded in 1964 by P. K. Abdul Ghafoor and friends, also played a role in the development of the community.Aikya Sangham (founded in 1922, Kodungallur) andFarook College (founded 1948) also promoted the higher education among the Muslims.[13]
A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in thePersian Gulf countries in the following years (beginning in the mid-1960s). This widespread participation in the Gulf Rush produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. Great influx funds from the earnings of Mappilas employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment and educational backwardness began to change.[2] The Mappila community is now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change and positive involvement in the modern world. Mappila women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.[13] As per the latest government data, female literacy rate inMalappuram District, centre of Mappila distribution, stood at 91.55% (2011 Census).[79]Lulu Group chairmanM. A. Yusuf Ali, 19th richest man in India, is the richest Malayali, according to the Forbes magazine (2018).[80]Azad Moopen, chairman of the Dubai-headquarteredAster DM Healthcare, is another major Muslim entrepreneur from Kerala.[81] During his state visit to Saudi Arabia in 2016, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi presented the Saudi king Salman with a gold-plated replica of the Kodungallur Mosque.[34]
Ever since in the Indian Independence from the British in 1947, the overwhelming majority of Muslims in former Malabar District have supported theMuslim League. In south Kerala, the community generally supportedIndian National Congress and in the north Kerala a small proportion vote Communist Left. Politically, the Muslims in Kerala have exhibited more unanimity than any other major communities in modern Kerala.[33]
Muslim converts from theNair caste in North Malabar (Including some parts of Kozhikode),[82]particularly during the medieval period, continued to practice aspects of the Nair matrilineal system, known asMarumakkathayam (or Thaavazhi), even after conversion to Islam. This system, which traced descent and inheritance through the female line, centered around the Tharavadu (ancestral home), with the Karanavar (maternal uncle) serving as the head of the family. Despite Islamic law advocating anegalitarian system of inheritance, many of these converted families, especially in the Malabar region, retained matrilineal customs for several generations, reflecting the deep influence of pre-Islamic social structures. Over time, with the increasing influence of Islamic norms, most of these families gradually transitioned to an egalitarian system, though elements of the matrilineal system persisted in some communities, highlighting the complex interaction between cultural traditions and religious practices in Kerala.[83][84]
Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow the traditionalShāfiʿī school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist Sunnis) while a large minority follow modern movements that developed withinSunni Islam. The latter section consists of majoritySalafists (the Mujahids) and the minorityIslamists.[17]
The Sunnis referred here are identified by their conventional beliefs and practices and adherence to theShāfiʿīmadhhab, while the other theological orientations, of which the Salafi Mujahids constitute a large majority, are seen as modern "reform" movements within the Sunni Islam. Both the Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to a number of sub-identities.[85][17]
Mappila Songs/Poems is a famousfolklore tradition emerged inc. 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Malayalam/Tamil and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.[87] Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as romance, satire, religion, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.[13]
As the modern Mappila literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.[13]
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Mappila authors of the modern age. Mappila periodical literature and newspaper dailies — all in Malayalam — are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Mappila community.[13]
The Mohammaden Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditionalKerala,Persian,Yemenese andArab food culture.[91] This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.[91]Kallummakkaya (mussels)curry,irachi puttu (irachi meaning meat),parottas (soft flatbread),[91]Pathiri (a type of rice pancake)[91] andghee rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—black pepper,cardamom andclove are used profusely.
TheMalabar version ofMandi, popularly known asPit Mandi inMalayalam is another popular item, which has an influence fromYemen. Various varieties ofbiriyanis likeThalasserybiriyani, Kannurbiriyani,[92] Kozhikodebiriyani[93] and Ponnanibiriyani[94] are prepared by the Mappila community.[91]
The snacks includeunnakkaya (deep-fried, boiled ripebanana paste covering a mixture of cashew,raisins andsugar),[95]pazham nirachathu (ripe banana filled withcoconut grating,molasses or sugar),[95]muttamala made ofeggs,[91]chatti pathiri, adessert made of flour, like a baked, layeredchapati with rich filling,arikkadukka,[96] and more.[91]
... Aurangzeb and Dara Shukoh participated in Aceh's trade, and Aurangzeb even exchanged presents with Aceh's sultan in 1641. For two decades after the Dutch conquest of Portuguese Melaka in 1641, the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by restricting Muslim trade to Aceh. Angered by
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