Mani | |
|---|---|
 Location of the Mani Peninsula | |
 Interactive map of Mani | |
| Location | Peloponnese, Greece |
| Municipalities | East Mani,West Mani |
| Population (2021)[1] | 18,654 |
TheMani Peninsula is a geographical and cultural region of thePeloponnese in southernGreece. It is often referred to asMani (Greek:Μάνη) or "the Mani". The inhabitants of Mani are known asManiots (Mανιάτες,Maniátes). Mani and the Maniots played a key role in theGreek War of Independence that began in 1821.[2]
The Mani is the central of the three peninsulas extending southwards from the Peloponnese into theMediterranean Sea. To Mani's east lie theLaconian Gulf and the peninsula ofCape Maleas, and to its west, theMessenian Gulf and the peninsula ofMessenia. The Mani Peninsula is the southern extension of theTaygetus mountain range. It is about 45 km (28 mi) long, with a rocky, rugged, interior bordered by scenic coastlines. Mani terminates atCape Matapan, the southernmost point of continental Greece.
In ancient times, Mani was considered part of Laconia, a region dominated by the powerful city-state (polis) of Sparta. Its administration is now divided between the municipalities ofEast Mani in modernLaconia, andWest Mani inMessenia. Mani's towns includeAreopoli,Gytheio, andPyrgos Dirou. Notable sites in Mani include the ruins of the ancientTemple of Poseidon at Cape Matapan, theMonastery of Panayia Yiatrissa, and theApidima Cave with itsNeanderthal fossils.
Mani was known asMaina Polypyrgos ('Many-Towered Maina') for its numeroustower-houses. From 1978 onwards, the Greek state decreed many settlements with tower-houses "traditional", setting restrictions on construction. In 2003, the whole peninsula was designated[a] a "cultural complex of international importance".[3]
The origin of the name "Mani" is uncertain.[4]: 502 [b] The earliest known record is a reference to the bishop of adiocese – ὁ Μαΐνης (ho Maïnēs,'the one who is [bishop] of Maïna') – in a hierarchical list of dioceses deposited in the archives of thePatriarchate of Constantinople in 907. Compiled during the reign ofEmperor Leo VI,[c] it shows Maïna's bishop as subordinate to themetropolitan ofCorinth.[7]: 655 In around 950,Constantine VII mentioned the inhabitants of a "city of Maïna" in his treatiseDe Administrando Imperio (On Administering the Empire).[8]
The 14th-century Greek-text version of theChronicle of Morea narrates howWilliam of Villehardouin, ruler of thePrincipality of Achaea (r. 1246–1278), journeyedεἰς τὴν Μάνην (eis tēn Manēn,'to Mani') and built a castle he namedΜάνη (Manē,'Mani') on a promontory there.[d] The castle is more usually known asGrand Magne.[9]: 226
The Mani is in the Aegean and Western Turkey Sclerophyllous and Mixed Forestsecoregion,[e][10] which is part of abiome known asMediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Scrub.
The southern part of the peninsula, covering about 317 km2 (122 sq mi), is aSpecial Protection Area (SPA) within theNatura 2000 network. This SPA was designated in 2010 under theBirds Directive of theEuropean Union; it protects 72 bird species.[11] The protected area is an importanthabitat for migratingraptors, notablyBonelli's eagle, theshort-toed snake eagle, thelanner falcon, and the rareeastern imperial eagle.[12]
The Mani is apeninsula withCape Matapan forming its southern tip. Themassif of theTaygetus range, about 100 km (62 mi) long, extends from the centre of the Peloponnese to Cape Matapan. The peninsula is composed ofMesozoic-eracarbonate rocks, such aslimestone, whicherode to formkarst caves such as the one atAlepotrypa.[13]: 168
Shallowlithosols andrendzina soils, with a low capacity for holding water, dominate on limestonebedrock.Terra rossa (Italian for 'red soil'), a water-retentive,clayey soil with a deeper profile, is common in cultivated areas.Alluvial soils are found in river valleys, andsaline soils in coastal environments.[14]: 7
The tallest mountain in the Taygetus range isMount Taygetus. Its summit,Profitis Ilias (Προφήτης Ηλίας'Prophet Elijah'), stands at 2,404 m (7,887 ft), and is the highest in the Peloponnese.[15] Some historians identifyProfitis Ilias with the "Taletum, a peak of Taygetus" mentioned byPausanias.[16]: 81
Vegetation in the Mani occupies a range of natural, semi-natural and human-madehabitats with a high diversity of species.[14]: 10
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Communities of low-growingalpine plants thrive above thetree line of theTaygetus range: examples areClinopodium alpinum (rock thyme);Astragalus angustifolius (a species ofmilkvetch); and the rareJurinea taygetea, anendemic species in theJurinea genus.Montane forests dominated byAbies cephalonica (Greek fir) andPinus nigra (European black pine) occur at moderate elevations.[f][14]: 11
Maquis, a type of impenetrablescrubland made up ofevergreen, hard-leavedshrubs about 1.5–3 m (5–10 ft) tall, is widespread on lower mountain slopes. Typical species areArbutus unedo (strawberry tree),Pistacia lentiscus (mastic),Quercus coccifera (kermes oak), andSmilax aspera (a species ofvine).Garrigue, a more open vegetation type, is also found over large areas at lower altitudes. This habitat features aromatic, shrubby plants, usually less than 1 m (3 ft) high, such asSarcopoterium spinosum (spiny burnet),Euphorbia acanthothamnos (Greek spiny spurge),Thymus capitatus (conehead thyme), andAnthyllis hermanniae (lavender-leaved anthyllis).Olive groves on the lower slopes (oftenterraced) and in the coastal plain of Messenian Mani are mainly cultivated without the use ofherbicides; the groves provide habitats for many spring-floweringannual plants.[14]: 11–12
TheVyros Gorge hosts several endemic species, includingLithodora zahnii of the genusLithodora, andThalictrum orientale (a type ofmeadow-rue).[17]: 222
Mani's rocky shores and sandy beaches, a specific habitat, feature plants such asMatthiola sinuata (sea stock),Limonium sinuatum (sea lavender), andPancratium maritimum (sea daffodil).[14]: 12 Posidonia oceanica (Neptune grass) is found offshore.[17]: 224
ThePeloponnese is exceptional in its range and abundance offauna, especiallyreptiles,[18]: 15 and the Mani is one of severalbiodiversity hotspots within it.[19]: 75
Themarginated tortoise (Testudo marginata) is densely distributed throughout Mani;[19]: 75 Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni) is more rarely found.[19]: 220
Many types of lizard are found ondry-stone walls and in rocky areas, including theGreek rock lizard (Hellenolacerta graeca),Kotschy's gecko (Mediodactylus kotschyi),Peloponnese wall lizard (Podarcis peloponnesiacus), andEuropean legless lizard (Pseudopus apodus). TheGreek snake skink (Ophiomorus punctatissimus) is common inmaquis.[19]: 75
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Maquis and other habitats are frequented by snakes such as thevenomous nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes meridionalis),European cat snake (Telescopus fallax), andeastern Montpellier snake (Malpolon insignitus).[19]: 75 The burrowingEurasian worm snake (Xerotyphlops vermicularis) is a regular prey oflittle owls (Athena noctua) in the spring.[19]: 378
The most widespreadamphibian is the highly adaptableEuropean green toad (Bufotes viridis), occurring in maquis, open forests, arid hilly areas, olive groves, beaches, on agricultural land, and in villages.[19]: 145 Thecommon toad (Bufo bufo),[19]: 133 European tree frog (Hyla arborea),[19]: 156 marsh frog (Pelophylax ridibundus),[19]: 173 andGreek newt (Lissotriton graecus)[19]: 110 occur in northeast Mani. Thefire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) is found in mountainous areas in the north of the peninsula.[19]: 116
Several beaches nearGytheio – atMavrovouni, Valtaki, and Selinitsa – are major nesting sites forloggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta).[20][21]
Wild boar (Sus scrofa), extinct in the Peloponnese byc. 1830, were reintroduced by hunting associations between 1988 and 2004,[22] and recorded in many parts of Mani from 2000.[23] Several incidents involving them – such as traffic accidents, attacks on people, and beach invasions – have been reported.[24]
Beech martens (Martes foina) are common around villages.[17]: 225, 229
The population and distribution of thegolden jackal (Canis aureus) in the Mani (and mainland Greece as a whole) has rapidly expanded since the early 21st century. This has been attributed to the species' high adaptability and capacity for colonizing human-dominated habitats, especially those with rough terrain.[25]: 9, 6 (fig. 2)
The mainbat species occurring in Mani are thegreater horseshoe (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum),Mediterranean horseshoe (Rhinolophus euryale),lesser mouse-eared (Myotis blythii),Natterer's (Myotis nattereri), andSchreiber's (Miniopterus schreibersii).[g][26]
The Mani peninsula, like much of southern Greece, has ahot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classificationCsa)[27] featuring mild to cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers.[28] The Messenian, or Outer, Mani receives more rainfall than the Laconian, or Inner and Lower, Mani, which is in arain shadow; as a consequence, Outer Mani is more agriculturally productive. Locals call Messenian Maniaposkiaderi'shady' and Laconian Maniprosiliaki'sunny'.[29]: 122
Local government is provided by themunicipalities ofWest Mani (Δυτική Μάνη,Dytikí Máni), andEast Mani (Ανατολική Μάνη,Anatolikí Máni). Each municipality is headed by a mayor, who governs with the aid of a municipal council.[30]
West Mani, with its administrative seat inKardamyli, is part of theregional unit ofMessenia; East Mani, whose administrative seat isGytheio, is inLaconia.
Messenia and Laconia are within thePeloponnese administrativeregion.
The three traditional regions of Mani are:
Cranae, an island just off the coast of Gytheio in Lower Mani, was linked to the mainland by acauseway in 1898.[31]
Local newspapers covering events in Mani include:
A winding road with coastal stretches linksKalamata, viaKampos,Kardamyli andStoupa, toOitylo, from where a cross-peninsular road runs northeast toGytheio.[36] From Oitylo, the road continues south towardsCape Matapan viaAreopoli,Gerolimenas andVatheia, looping back north to Gytheio along the east coast via Kokkala, Kotronas andSkoutari.[37] Another cross-peninsular road runs southeast from Areopoli to Kotronas.[38]
From Gytheio,National Road 39 (European route E961) runs north toSparta.[39] Gytheio can be reached from Kalamata from the north by using thetoll road motorwaysA7 andA71; the A7 connects with National Road 39.[40]
ThePeloponnese section of theE4 European long-distance path runs viaSparta andKastania to Gytheio in northeast Mani, and then continues, via ferry, inCrete.[41]
Ferries connect Gytheio toKythera,Antikythera, Crete, andPiraeus, the port ofAthens.[42]
Kalamata International Airport is nearKalamata, which is adjacent to West Mani.
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Mani has been inhabited sinceprehistoric times. TheApidima Cave on the west side of the peninsula has yieldedNeanderthal andHomo sapiens fossils from thePalaeolithic era.[43] As of 2019[update], aHomo sapiens skull recovered from Apidima, dating to at least 210,000 yearsbefore present, is the earliest evidence of modern humans in Europe.[44]Neolithic remains have been found on Mani's coast in theAlepotrypa Cave, a major settlement, cemetery and ceremonial site,[45] and human and Neanderthal remains in theKalamakia Cave, aMiddle Palaeolithic site.[46] The Lakonis I site, a collapsed Middle Palaeolithic cave on the coast near Gytheio, contains evidence of Neanderthals' use of fire to dispose of bones and other food refuse.[47]
Evidence of extensive Neolithic and earlyBronze Age occupation and activity extending north and south of theBay of Oitylo has been found at many other cave sites.[48]
TheMycenaean civilization (1900–1100 BC) dominated Mani and the Peloponnese in theBronze Age. Mani flourished under the Mycenaeans. A temple dedicated toApollo was erected at Cape Matapan. It was later re-dedicated as theTemple of Poseidon.Homer refers to a number of towns in the Mani region. The "Catalogue of Ships" in theIliad namesMessa,Oetylus,Kardamyli,Gerenia,Teuthrone, andLas.[49] Mani features in many myths and legends, with one describing a sea-hollowed cavern nearCape Matapan (ancient Taenarum) as a portal to Hades, theunderworld.[50]
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In the earlyGreek Dark Ages (c. 1050–800 BC), the inhabitants ofLaconia were leading producers ofTyrian purple from themurex sea snail, still plentiful in the waters offGytheio andKythera. Production is thought to have been established by thePhoenicians.[51]
With the onset of theArchaic Period (c. 800–480 BC), Mani and much of the Peloponnese came under the sway of the powerful city-state ofSparta. Under Spartan rule, the inhabitants ofKardamyli,Thalamae,Gythium, and otherpoleis inLaconia andMessenia, were second-tier citizens known asperioikoi,'those who dwell around'.[52]: 56–59
Gytheio, 27 km (17 mi) from Sparta, became Mani's – and Sparta's – major port. It was captured by Athenian forces in 455 BC during theFirst Peloponnesian War, a power struggle between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies.[53]
The damaged city and docks were rebuilt; by the end of the war, Gytheio was the mainshipyard for the new Spartan fleet.[54] Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnese lasted until 371 BC, when theThebans underEpaminondas defeated Sparta at theBattle of Leuctra.[55]
Throughout much of theHellenistic period (323–30 BC), the Mani Peninsula remained subject to Spartanhegemony. This era proved turbulent for Mani andLaconia, marked by frequent military engagements and shifting political allegiances.Taenarum became a mercenary headquarters in the late 4th century.[56]
Competition between rival powers resulted in a series of wars that eventually drew in theKingdom of Macedon and the expandingRoman Republic: theCleomenean War (229–222 BC); theSocial War (220–217 BC); theMacedonian Wars (214–148 BC); and theLaconian War (195 BC).Gythium, as a major port, remained an especially sought-after prize for all parties.
In 218 BC, during the Social War,Philip V of Macedon invaded and overran Laconia. In the process, he laid waste the east coast of the Mani Peninsula as far south as Taenarum, though he failed to captureAsine. Reversing course northwards, he headed for Gythium, and then made forHelos and theMalea peninsula, which he devastated as far south asBoeae.[57]
Nabis ascended to the Spartan throne in 207 BC; he expanded Gythium, transforming it into a naval base.[58] Rome, allied with theAchaean League – a confederation of Sparta's Greek rivals – captured Gythium in 195 BC after a prolonged siege; Sparta was the next target of the allies. The Romans placed several coastal settlements, including Gythium and many others in Mani, under the protection of the Achaean League. Their inhabitants, formerly second-tier citizens of Sparta (periokoi), were known asEleutherolakōnes (Ἐλευθερολάκωνες'free Laconians').[59]
Determined to retake Gythium, Nabis advanced on and recovered the port in 192 BC. The Romans soon recaptured it. Nabis was assassinated, and Sparta was incorporated, on lenient terms, in the Achaean League. In 189 BC, the Spartans, still seeking access to a port, seizedLas, prompting the Achaeans to abolish the Spartan constitution, end social institutions such as theeducation and training system (agōgē) andmess halls, and absorb Sparta outright.[60]
With the victory of the Romans over Corinth and the Achaean League at theBattle of Corinth in 146 BC, all of Greece became part of their empire.[62][63] The Peloponnese was administered as the province ofAchaia. TheEleutherolakōnes were allowed to unite to form a Lacedaemonian League. In 21 BC, underAugustus, the first Roman emperor, this became theLeague of Free Laconians.[59] In 375 AD, a massive earthquake devastated Gythium and submerged much of its ruins under the sea.[64]
In 395 AD, mainland Greece and the Peloponnese became part of theByzantine Empire (also known as the Eastern Roman Empire), bringing over 500 years of centralized rule from Rome to an end. Mani would nominally be administered by the new government inConstantinople for over a millennium, with periodic interruptions due to unrest and foreign invasions. Mani's remoteness would limit Constantinople's influence.
The Mani Peninsula had a turbulent history during the long period ofByzantine Greece (395–1453), as various powers fought over it and the wholePeloponnese (known for much of this time as "Morea"). Between 396 and 397, theVisigoths underAlaric I raided the Peloponnese.[65]: 166–167 According toProcopius, a Greek historian writing in the 6th century, theVandals underGaiseric (r. 428–477) unsuccessfully assaultedTaenarum.[66]
In the late 6th century,Avars andSlavs invaded Greece, reaching much of the Peloponnese.[67][68] The chronology, extent, and duration of invasions and subsequent occupations, the reliability of written,[h]toponymic and archaeological evidence, the pace ofByzantine recovery, and the degree of lasting cultural influence, are all topics of academic dispute.[69] The particular theory ofFallmerayer, a 19th-century German historian, that Avar, Slavic, and other peoplesreplaced the Greek population of the Peloponnese in this period has been tested by thegenetic analysis of samples of modern populations: a 2017 paper found that "Peloponneseans are clearly distinguishable from the populations of the Slavic homeland and are very similar to Sicilians and Italians".[70]
Over the subsequent centuries, Mani was fought over by theByzantines, theFrench, and theSaracens. In the wake of theEarly Muslim conquests,Arabs captured the island ofCrete in the 820s and established anemirate there. Arab pirates then began to raid Mani and the coastal cities of the Peloponnese; this ceased when the Byzantines retook Crete in 961.[71][67]: 1621
By the middle of the 6th century, mainland Greece was largelyChristianized: there were nearly 60episcopal sees, with a large concentration in theProvince of Achaia, of which Mani was a part.[72]: 249 Around 950,Emperor Constantine VII wrote a manual ofstatecraft in which he mentions that Mani had remained pagan till the reign of his grandfather,Basil I, who ruled in the late 9th century.[8]
According to Seifried (2021),[73]: 9 Constantine's statement, cited in the works of modern historians,[i] led archaeologists conducting the initial studies of Mani's Byzantine churches to mistakenly conclude that the earliest were built in the 10th century. Seifried considers that because archaeological research undertaken since the 1960s into churches in southern Mani has tentatively dated several to the Early Byzantine period (330–717), the process of Christianization can be pushed as far back as the 5th century.[j] Seifried notes that the pace of church building in Mani increased between the 10th and 15th centuries, with an average of 35 built per century compared to two per century in the Early Byzantine years.[73]: 10
Concerning the possible role ofSt. Nikon in Mani's Christianization – he was active as a missionary in mainland Greece from the mid-960s – Curta (2011) states that "In Peloponnesos, Nikon does not appear to have been concerned with the conversion of anyone, either Greek or Slav."[72]: 252
After theSack of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, the Mani Peninsula became part of thePrincipality of Achaea (1205–1432), aCrusader state, though it retained a degree of autonomy due to its largely inaccessible mountain terrain.[4]: 71–73 Inc. 1220,Jean de Nully, a French knight, was appointed to theBarony of Passavant, the last of Achaea'sbaronies to be established.[4]: 113 His castle ofPassavas overlooked the route from Gytheio to Tsimova (modernAreopoli).[4]: 508–509
TheMelingoi, aSlavic tribe, had settled on the western side of theTaygetus between the 6th and 9th centuries.[9]: 231 Living in fortified settlements in northwest Mani,[74]: 391 they followed a pastoral,transhumant way of life, moving their livestock to pastures up and down the mountain range according to the season.[75] The Greek-text version of theChronicle of Morea describes howWilliam of Villehardouin, the fourth prince of Achaea (r. 1246–1278), built the three castles ofMystras,Grand Magne, andBeaufort in order to control them.[9]: 233 TheChronicle recounts that under a treaty between the Melingoi and William, the former undertook to provide military assistance to the latter in lieu of taxes andcorvée.[9]: 239 The Melingoi maintained an independent existence at least until the 14th century, converting to Christianity and serving the Byzantines.[76]
By the mid-13th century, the resurgence of theByzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty had shifted the balance of power in Greece. In the 1250s thePope appointed a "Latin," i.e.,Roman Catholic, bishop to Mani, provoking resentment among the Orthodox Greeks, who soon removed him. In 1259, Byzantine forces captured Prince William at theBattle of Pelagonia. In 1262, William surrendered three fortresses toEmperor Michael VIII to obtain his release: Mystras, Grand Magne, and Monemvasia.[77]
Maniots had maintained a significant degree of autonomy during thePrincipality of Achaea's existence. From the mid-14th to mid-15th centuries, control over the region gradually shifted to a semi-autonomous province of the Byzantine Empire called theDespotate of the Morea (1349–1460), when successivedespotes governed the province.
In 1453, theOttoman Empire besieged andcaptured Constantinople; by 1460, the Ottomans had completed theirconquest of the Morea.[k]
The Ottomans remained nominal rulers of Mani until the outbreak of theGreek War of Independence in 1821, with a brief interlude ofVenetian control. Mani was first administered by the OttomanEyalet of the Archipelago, and then by theMorea Eyalet. As an area with a challenging topography, a demanding environment, and on the margins of the empire, imperial control of Mani was limited; this allowed some local independence in determining social structures and political arrangements.[78]
The Ottoman Empire and theRepublic of Venice frequently clashed over control of theMorea, with the Mani Peninsula emerging as a major site of contestation during aseries of conflicts that began in 1396 – about sixty years before theOttoman conquest of Greece – and ended in 1718. A significant shift in the balance of power occurred with theTreaty of Constantinople (1479), a Venetian-Ottoman peace settlement ending theFirst Ottoman–Venetian War, which had begun in 1463. The treaty restored territorial boundaries to their pre-1463 status. This meant that lands held by Greek rebels under Venetian protection returned to Ottoman control, including the Mani Peninsula.[79]: 269
Krokodeilos Kladas (1425–1490) had led bands of warriors calledstratioti against the Ottoman Empire, with Venice providing support.[79]: 269 He contested the outcome of the 1479 treaty, and led a group of Albanians, together withstratioti from the Venetian territories, in a revolt against the Ottomans in the Mani. This rebellion strained relations between Venice and the Ottoman Empire, with disputes over who was responsible for the activities of the insurgents.[80] Hoping to avoid another war, both Venetians and Ottomans put abounty on Kladas. After initial successes, in 1480 an Ottoman army drove him to take refuge in the fortress ofKastania, from where he escaped, with fifty men, on ships sent byKing Ferdinand of Naples.[79]: 270
Around 1568, the Ottomans built a small castle to defend the harbour ofPorto Kagio, which they were using as a base forgalleys patrolling theKythira Strait between the Peloponnese andCrete. They abandoned it in 1570 after a Venetian attack. Certain 17th- and 18th-century cartographers refer to the castle as "Maina"; some later authors identified this as the 13th-centuryGrand Magne, though medievalportolan charts do not show a castle there.[81]: 143–144
In 1612, the Mani Peninsula became the focal point of another Ottoman military incursion, this time triggered by the actions ofCharles Gonzaga (1580–1637), who claimed descent from thePalaiologos dynasty. Charles sought to establish a new Byzantine state with himself as emperor in Constantinople, viewing his endeavor as a newcrusade. The Maniots caught wind of Charles's ambitions and negotiated an alliance, with church leaders addressing him as "Constantine Palaeologus".[82]: 650
On discovering Charles's plans and the Maniots' support, the Ottoman authorities launched a large-scale punitive expedition, with a force of 20,000 soldiers and 70 ships deployed to invade Mani. The Ottomans devastated the peninsula and imposed punishing taxes on the Greeks. Charles's further attempts at his crusade failed, and he later became Duke ofMantua andMontferrat. His failure left the Maniots to continue their struggle against the Ottomans without external support. The Maniots' resistance remained a persistent challenge to Ottoman authority.[83]
In October 1675, some 730 Maniots fleeing Ottoman rule embarked from Oitylo on aGenoese ship forCorsica, which was then Genoese territory. After a short stop inGenoa, they arrived in Corsica in March 1676, eventuallysettling in the area of Paomia (modern Cargèse). These settlers, led by the Stephanopoulos family and accompanied by clergy, were the first wave of a significant Greek migration to the island.[84] A lengthy process of assimilation lasted well into the 20th century.[85]
In the late 17th century, the Ottomans began appointing Maniotchieftains, designatedbeys, to rule Mani on their behalf. The rule of theBeys of Mani ended with the onset of theGreek War of Independence in 1821.
The first suchbey was the ManiotLimberakis Gerakaris (c. 1644 – 1710), installedc. 1669. A formergalley oarsman in theVenetian navy who became apirate, he was captured by the Ottomans and condemned to death. Thegrand vizier pardoned him on condition that he manage Mani as avassal state.
Limberakis accepted the offer. He used his new position to persecute the Stephanopoulos clan ofOitylo,[86]: 338 with whom he had been feuding.[84]: 35 During his rule, he alternated allegiance between theRepublic of Venice and the Ottomans.[87] Limberakis eventually fell out of favour with the Turks, and was captured by Ottoman forces in 1682.[88]: 27 Anotherbey was not appointed for over a century.[88]: 30
With the Ottomans preoccupied with theirwars against the Habsburgs, the Venetians saw an opportunity to seize Turkish-held territories in the Peloponnese, sparking theMorean War of 1684–1699.[88]: 28 This was the sixth Ottoman–Venetian war and part of the wider conflict known as the "Great Turkish War". Military operations ranged across southeastern Europe and the Aegean; the war's major campaign was the Venetian conquest of the Morea.
TheBattle of Kalamata in 1685 ended with a Venetian victory. Venice went on to conquer the Mani Peninsula, solidifying their foothold in the southern Morea. The Venetians took their first census of the entire Morea in 1689, estimating the Maniot population (who refused to be counted) at 16,000 to 18,000.[89] Venice's expansionist revival would be short-lived, as its gains werereversed by the Ottomans in 1718.
The Ottomans faced a rival to the east in an expansionist Russia – theTsardom and subsequentEmpire. After an initial era of conflict via proxies,[90] a series ofRusso-Turkish wars began in 1568 (and continued, intermittently, till 1918). In the 18th century, the confrontation between the two empires spilled over into Mani.
By the late 17th century, Russian influence was spreading among Maniots and otherChristians under Ottoman rule. Prophecies began circulating in the 1690s, at the height of thethird Russo–Turkish War, of a "blonde nation" that would destroy the Ottoman Empire.[91]: 55–57 This hope was fueled by the war and byGreek Orthodox patriarchs seeking Russian support to regain privileges lost in an earlierFranco-Ottoman alliance.[91]: 56 From 1700 onwards, the presence of a Russian ambassador at the Ottoman court enabled direct contacts between Russian officials and Ottoman Christians, who began to seek refuge in Russia. These included Greek refugees, who established communities there.[91]: 56–57, 59
In the mid-1760s, wishing to weaken theOttoman Empire and establish a pro-Russian, independent Greek state, Russia sent emissaries to Mani to enlist local military leaders;[92] at the same time, notable Greeks approached Russian agents to discuss plans for the liberation of Greece.[93] Russian artillery captain Grigorios Papadopoulos,[l] a Greek, was dispatched to Mani.[92] Georgios Papazolis, another Greek officer in the Russian army, cooperated with the brothersGrigory and CountAlexei Orlov in preparing a Greek insurrection in the Morea during Russian military operations against the Ottoman Empire in 1769.[95] The organization of the rebellion was charged to the Orlov brothers,[92] with Alexei as fleet commander.[94]: 15
With the onset of theRusso-Turkish War of 1768–1774 (the sixth conflict between the empires), Russia saw an opportunity to seize territory from its Ottoman rival.[96] Aiming to weaken the Ottomans from within, Russia planned to incite Orthodox Christians to revolt, and sent agents to strategic points in theBalkans and Greece, including the Morea.[94]: 17–18 Another Orlov brother,Fyodor, was sent to coordinate rebels there, as, due to its ports, it was deemed the most important strategic area of mainland Greece.[94]: 19–20 The Greeks prepared to revolt in the expectation of massive Russian aid.[92]
Russia assembled a war fleet that landed Fyodor Orlov atKalamata in February 1770.[94]: 18 This expedition of four ships, a few hundred soldiers, and paltry arms supplies, greatly disappointed the Greeks. Nevertheless, Orlov's arrival in Mani sparked a Maniot uprising, theOrlov revolt.[92] An initial force of 1,400 men was raised, and organized into "legions" with the help of Russian officers.[97] The Greek rebels were at first successful, defeating Ottoman forces in Laconia and eastern Messenia. They captured the fortress ofMystras and established a local government there,[98] but the revolt failed to spread effectively.[97]
The Ottomans responded with aninvasion force, and by June 1770 the revolt had been suppressed, three months after it had begun. The Ottomans' Albanian troops massacred Greek civilians and destroyed property.[92] After several years of plundering, they were curbed by Turkish troops, and order restored, in 1779.[99]
After the failed revolt of 1770, the Ottomans sought to control Mani through the appointment of a newbey. In 1784,Tzanetos Grigorakis from the powerful Grigorakis clan was induced to accept the position. In 1798, the Ottomans learned he was conspiring with French agents sent byNapoleon to orchestrate a revolt, and deposed him in favour of Panagiotis Koumoundouros.[88]: 31
In 1803, the Ottomans discovered that Grigorakis had received a shipment of arms from the French, and resolved to eliminate him. During theOttoman invasion of Mani that same year, theKapudan Pasha, the grand admiral of the Ottoman navy, led a large force into Mani. His army set up base atGytheio, directly across from Grigorakis's fortified home on the island ofMarathonisi.[citation needed] The Ottoman fleet blockaded the island, and their artillery inflicted significant damage. After a brief siege, Grigorakis, with his sons and followers, slipped out of the fort during the night and fled inland.[citation needed]
During the 1803 invasion, the Ottomans removedbey Panagiotis Koumoundouros because he had allowed Tzanetos Grigorakis to receive arms from the French. They replaced him with Antony Grigorakis, a cousin of Tzanetos.[88]: 31 The Ottomansinvaded Mani in 1807 and again in 1815; they were repulsed each time.
In 1810,bey Antony Grigorakis resigned in favour of his son-in-law, Konstantis Zervakos. The Maniots were hostile to Zervakos, and drove him out. That same year, clan chiefs assembled in Gytheio and elected Thodoros Zanetakis, nephew of Tzanetos Grigorakis, as their leader. During the1815 Ottoman invasion of Mani, Zanetakis was removed from power and replaced byPetros Mavromichalis. Known as "Petrobey", he was the firstbey fromMesa Mani (Inner Mani).[88]: 32 In 1819, he joined theFiliki Eteria, a 19th-century Greek secret society opposing Ottoman rule, which by 1821 was prepared to revolt.[88]: 33
Bands of brigands known asklephts (κλέφτες'thieves'), led bykapetánioi (καπετάνιοι'captains'), had been operating in mountainous areas of Greece for generations.[100]: 310–313 They were countered by the Ottomans with groups of irregular soldiers ormilitia known asarmatoloi (αρματολοί). Manyarmatoloi were formerklephts granted amnesty in return for serving the Ottoman authorities. Roles became blurred over time, and a change from brigand to militiaman, or militiaman to brigand, was common for captains and their bands. Their armed formations would form the backbone of Greek forces in the coming War of Independence.[101]: 155–157
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On 17 March 1821, 12,000 Maniots gathered in Areopoli and declared war against the Ottoman Empire, an act which preceded the rest of Greece by about a week.[88]: 58 The secret society ofFiliki Eteria had sent representatives to organize the Maniots.[102]: 40 From his base in Kalamata, Maniot leaderPetros Mavromichalis titled himself "Commander in Chief of the Spartan Forces" and wrote letters to European heads of state announcing the Greek revolution. He then directed Maniot forces to attack Turkish positions in Messenia and Laconia.[102]: 58 On 23 September 1821, after a long siege, Maniot fighters were part of the Greek forces underTheodoros Kolokotronis thatcaptured and sacked the Ottoman regional capital,Tripolitsa.[2]: 72
In 1825, with the Greek revolution faltering, OttomanSultan Mahmud II enlisted the help ofMuhammad Ali of Egypt to subdue it. Ali's son,Ibrahim Pasha, landed atMethoni with a large force and quickly recaptured much of the Peloponnese, but was unable to takeNafplio and the Mani.[2]: 296, 302
In 1826, Ibrahim's forces launched a two-pronged attack on the Mani in a jointOttoman–Egyptian invasion. In June, at the Battle of Verga just southeast ofKalamata, 2,000 to 4,000 Maniots – numbers grew as the three-day battle wore on – together with warriors and refugees from other parts of Greece, successfully defended a fortified wall, repelling the Egyptian advance. Simultaneously, an Egyptian fleet landed an army at the Bay of Diros nearAreopoli, aiming to capture the town and disrupt Maniot communications. The troops, initially contained by local women and elderly men armed with sickles and stones, were attacked by 1,000 Maniot fighters, suffered heavy losses, and forced to retreat.[103]: 188–191
AfterIoannis Kapodistrias became the first governor of Greece in 1831, he came into conflict with theMavromichalis clan, as the Maniots refused to pay taxes to the new government.[102]: 165 Kapodistrias arrested and imprisoned Tzanis Mavromichalis, the brother of Maniot leader Petros Mavromichalis. Subsequently, Petros was also arrested and charged with treason.[102]: 168
On 27 September 1831, in retaliation for Petros's arrest, Petros's brother,Konstantinos Mavromichalis, and his brother's son,Georgios Mavromichalis, assassinated Kapodistrias as he was entering a church inNafplio. Konstantinos was killed by Kapodistrias's bodyguard, and Georgios was later executed.[102]: 168
In 1833,Otto von Wittelsbach was appointedKing of Greece. HisCouncil of Regency took action to subdue the Maniots and dismantle their defensive towers.[88]: 35 In 1870, a Maniotvendetta was halted by the efforts of a regular army with artillery support.[88]: 36
The violence ofWorld War II in the Balkans and theGreek Civil War that followed severely affected the region and engulfed the Peloponnese and Mani. TheAxis occupation of Greece and the ensuing conflicts brought widespread hardship. Mani was devastated by the wars, and many of its young people left forAthens or to join theGreek diaspora in theUnited States andAustralia.[88]: 39
Fascist Italy invaded Greece in October 1940, starting theGreco-Italian War. The Italians soon encountered major difficulties and turned toNazi Germany for assistance. Germanyinvaded Greece in April 1941. The Axis occupation lasted from 1941 to 1944.
In Mani, the British had begun to evacuate their troops fromPorto Kagio ahead of the 1941 German invasion.[88]: 141 During the occupation, Mani became a stronghold for theSecurity Battalions, Greekcollaborationist paramilitary groups formed to support the German and Italian occupation troops. With the end of the occupation in 1944, Greece began to slide into the 1946–1949 civil war.[104]
Mani's population declined and continued to fall as emigration continued beyond the post-war decades. Mani was considered a backwater until the 1970s, when the government started to build roads which made the peninsula more accessible by car. Atourist industry took hold, with ensuing population and economic growth.[citation needed]
In 2007,widespread wildfires caused significant damage and loss of life in Mani, particularly aroundAreopoli.[105]Wildfires in 2021 again devastated much of the Peloponnese:[106]East Mani was badly affected, with an area of 105 km2 (41 mi2) burnt.[107]
The municipalities ofEast Mani andWest Mani were established in 2011 by theKallikratis Programme, a sweeping administrative reform that resulted in mergers of regional and local governments in the Peloponnese and across Greece.
Mani's economy is oriented towards agriculture, tourism, and maritime activity.[citation needed]
Many Maniots were engaged in producingsea salt in the 19th and early 20th centuries, largely on the west coast of the peninsula. There were four types of salt harvesting or production sites: naturalsalt pans formed in existing rock depressions along the shore (sites nearGerolimenas andMezapos, for example); small artificialevaporation ponds excavated above sea level (such as a site near Artsi); large artificial ponds with associated temporary housing for workers (near Koukouri); and major saltworks built with significant technical infrastructure and permanent worker accommodation (on theTigani peninsula). Salt was traded for foodstuffs such as barley, wheat, maize, cheese, and dried figs.[108]
According to Wagstaff (1965), the economy of Mani for the periodc. 1680 – c. 1840 can be reconstructed in outline by analysing the travelogues of west European writers,[109]: 293 though he points out that apart from one source,[m] their accounts are descriptive, patchy, and do not cover the whole peninsula.[109]: 294
Wheat, barley, andsorghum were widely cultivated, andmaize grown in water-retentive soils. In the early 19th century, olive oil was produced in large quantities north ofOitylo; cultivation further south became extensive some decades later.Lupins are mentioned as a crop cultivated in rotation with barley and wheat. The production of beans and chickpeas was enough, in abundant years, to support exports to Italy. Pigs (feeding on lupins) were probably reared more than cattle; sheep and goats are not mentioned in travellers' descriptions, "possibly because they were being grazed away from the main routes".[109]: 296, 298–300
Exports included honey andbeeswax,quails, olive oil, and two products extracted from theholm-oak: from itsacorn-cups, a substance known as valonea, used intanning; and from itsgalls,prinokoki (πρινόκοκκοι), a scarlet dye. Some cloth was produced from wool or cotton, and one account mentions a small export trade. The plantations ofmulberry trees observed in the northeast, including nearSkoutari, were the basis of asilk industry.[109]: 300–301
Maniotpiracy was observed by the Turkish explorerEvliya Çelebi (1611–1682), who visited Mani with an Ottoman expedition. He said of the Maniots: "They capture theFrank and sell him to us, they capture us and sell us to the Franks."[110] The acquisition of goods frommerchant ships through piracy formed part of the Maniot economy from at least as early as the 13th century until well into the 19th.[109]: 302–303
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The abundant stone resources of Mani were exploited inantiquity, withlimestone and various types ofmarble extracted fromquarries throughout the peninsula; many were situated on the coast. Coloured and white marbles were exported to places includingSparta,Monemvasia, andCorinth, though trade and usage appear to have been largely local.[111]: 82–84, 88, 136
Maniot culture was based onclan orpatrilineal kinship groups that valued traditional concepts of manhood andpatriarchal family relations.[29]: 122 This way of life stemmed from Mani's geographical isolation from the more populated regions of Greece, and was further influenced by its history of foreign invasions; it persisted until the social upheavals of World War II.[112] The stronger clans, themegalogenites, held better-quality land on which they built high towers; they dominated the weaker clans, theahamnoteroi.[29]: 123 According to local tradition, some clans were of noble, and often imperial, Byzantine descent.[113]
Mani is known for its uniquetower houses calledpyrghóspita.[114] These towers were usually surrounded by other houses, family churches, and cemeteries, forming a fortified complex known as axemóni which served as a clan-based compound.[115]
Over 170 settlements in the peninsula contain architecture from the middle of the Byzantine period – roughly from the 8th to the 13th centuries. Known aspalaiomaniatika (παλαιομανιάτικα'old Maniot settlements') orpalaiochores (παλαιοχώρες'old villages'), these settlements are small (10 to 50 houses), with about half still inhabited and the rest abandoned.[116]: 153
Their main feature are houses, towers, andcisterns.[116]: 158 These structures were typically built with very thickdry-stone walls using large blocks of quarriedlimestone or limestone boulders.[116]: 161 Theirvernacular architecture is sometimes described as "megalithic" or "cyclopean", with some scholars surmising a building tradition stretching back to the late Hellenistic period.[117]: 35 Evidence from historical documents indicates that people were living in most of thepalaiomaniatika well into the Ottoman era.[116]: 178
The distinctive ingredients of traditional Maniot cuisine include olive oil and olives; citrus fruits, especially oranges;horta (χόρτα'wild greens') and aromatic herbs;lupins, broad beans, and lentils; local cheeses such as the white, semi-hardsfela (σφέλα); cheese pies and other savoury pies;lalangia (λαλάγγια'fried dough strips');diples (δίπλες'honey rolls'); and pork products such assyglino (σύγκλινο'salted pork preserved in pork fat').[118][119]
Phonologically, the traditional Maniotdialect[n] has two distinguishing features: the historical /y/ (υ), which has shifted to /i/ inStandard Modern Greek, has been maintained as /u/ in Maniot, so that, for example, the standardxylo (ξύλο'wood') becomesxulo; and Maniot exhibits a pronouncedpalatalisation ofvelar consonants.[120]: 54–55, 59
Family names in Messenian Mani typically end in-eas, while those in Laconian Mani end in-akos or-oggonas.[citation needed]
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The inhabitants of the city of Maïna are not of the race of [Slavs], but of the ancient Romans, and even to this day they are called 'Hellenes' by the local inhabitants, because in the very ancient times they were idolaters and worshippers of images after the fashion of the ancient Hellenes; and they were baptized in the reign of the glorious Basil.
The prevailing hydrogeological conditions of the Taygetos Peninsula favour the occurrence of coastal and submarine groundwater discharges and the development of caves. Characteristic examples are the cave at Alepotrypa[.]
The availability in these heterogeneous agricultural landscapes of anthropogenic food sources and the abundance of small mammals (e.g. voles and mice), which are the preferred prey of the golden jackal, provide an explanation for the preference of this type of habitat.
Analysis of two fossils from a Greek cave has shed light on early hominins in Eurasia. One fossil is the earliest known specimen ofHomo sapiens found outside Africa; the other is a Neanderthal who lived 40,000 years later.
Two fossilized human crania [...] were discovered in the late 1970s[.] Here we virtually reconstruct both crania, provide detailed comparative descriptions and analyses, and date them[.] Apidima 2 dates to more than 170 thousand years ago and has a Neanderthal-like morphological pattern. Apidima 1 dates to more than 210 thousand years ago and presents a mixture of modern human and primitive features.
[I]n the so-called Boiotian war, [...] at Boiotian Leuktra in 371, Epameinondas of Thebes inflicted on Sparta its heaviest military defeat in memory.
In the later 4th cent. [BCE] the district was an important headquarters for mercenaries.
[T]he worst earthquake came in 374–375 AD, when a considerable part of the town was covered by the sea.
For at one time Gizeric [sic], falling suddenly upon the towns in the Peloponnesus, undertook to assault Taenarum. And being repulsed from there and losing many of his followers he retired in complete disorder.
During [Emperor]Maurice's reign (582–602), Avars and Slavs [...] ravaged much of the Balkans, capturing or isolating most inland cities, [and] reaching the Peloponnese.
We find considerable heterogeneity of Peloponnesean populations exemplified by genetically distinct subpopulations and by gene flow gradients within Peloponnese. By [analysis,] the Peloponneseans are clearly distinguishable from the populations of the Slavic homeland and are very similar to Sicilians and Italians. Using a novel method [...] we find that the Slavic ancestry of Peloponnesean subpopulations ranges from 0.2 to 14.4%.
[T]he first Venetian census of the entire Morea ... gives the number of 'souls' in each of the seven fiscal provinces in which the Morea was then divided. If we add up these figures we get 98,885. This is without the 'fierce' Maniates, who regarded the census as a bad omen and refused to be counted. [The Venetians] estimated them at 16,000 to 18,000 ... [this estimate] is perhaps a high one[.]Full access available to users ofThe Wikipedia Library.
For example, on Jan. 6, 1769, Greek captains from Mani applied to Catherine the Great for help, assuring the empress that more than 140,000 warriors in Peloponnesus were ready to fight for their freedom, if they 'get Your ... forceful hand for their strengthening'; representatives of the aristocratic family Paleolog visited Obrezkov, the Russian ambassador in the Porte, several times in the 1760s with similar appeals to send the Russian fleet and to bring arms for Greek warriors.
Οἱ παραδόσεις καταγωγῆς ἀναφέρονται εἴτε στόν τόπο καταγωγῆς εἴτε στήν προέλευση ἀπό μιά σπουδαία – συνήθως αὐτοκρατορική – οἰκογένεια τοῦ Βυζαντίου.[Traditions of descent refer either to the place of origin or to descent from a great – usually imperial – family of Byzantium.]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Records a journey made in 1951, largely on foot or by boat, around the peninsula, with stories of encounters with Maniots and descriptions of local customs and traditions.
36°33′32″N22°25′49″E / 36.5590°N 22.4303°E /36.5590; 22.4303
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