Amango is an ediblestone fruit produced by the tropical treeMangifera indica. It originated in the northeastern part of theIndian subcontinent, in what is now Bangladesh,northeastern India andMyanmar.[1][2]M. indica has been cultivated inSouth and Southeast Asia since ancient times, resulting in two modern mango cultivars: the "Indian" and the "Southeast Asian" types.[1][2] Other species in the genusMangifera also produce edible fruits called "mangoes," most of which are found in theMalesian ecoregion.[3]
There are several hundredcultivars of mango worldwide. Depending on the cultivar, mango fruit varies in size, shape, sweetness, skin color, and flesh color, which may be pale yellow, gold, green, or orange.[4] Mango is thenational fruit ofIndia,Pakistan, and thePhilippines,[5][6] while the mango tree is thenational tree of Bangladesh.[7]
Etymology
The English wordmango (pluralmangoes ormangos) originated in the 16th century from thePortuguese wordmanga, from theMalaymangga, and ultimately from theTamilmā (மா, 'mango tree') +kāy (ங்காய், 'unripe fruit/vegetable')[8][9][10] or theMalayalammāṅṅa (മാവ്, 'mango tree') +kāya (കായ, 'unripe fruit').[11] The scientific name,Mangifera indica, refers to a plant bearing mangoes in India.[10]
Description
Mango trees grow to 30–40 metres (98–131 feet) tall, with a crown radius of 10–15 m (33–49 ft). The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years.[12]
In deep soil, thetaproot descends to a depth of 6 m (20 ft), with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots and anchor roots penetrating deeply into the soil. Theleaves areevergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 centimetres (6–14 inches) long, and 6–16 cm (2+1⁄2–6+1⁄2 in) broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature. Theflowers are produced in terminalpanicles10–40 cm (4–15+1⁄2 in) long; each flower is small and white with five petals5–10 millimetres (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) long, with a mild, sweet fragrance. Over 500varieties of mangoes are known,[4] many of which ripen in summer, while some give a double crop.[13] The fruit takes four to five months from flowering to ripening.[4]
The ripe fruit varies according to cultivar in size, shape, color, sweetness, and eating quality. Depending on the cultivar, fruits are variously yellow, orange, red, or green. The fruit has a single flat, oblongpit that can befibrous or hairy on the surface and does not separate easily from the pulp. The fruits may be somewhat round, oval, orkidney-shaped, ranging from 5–25 centimetres (2–10 in) in length and from 140 grams (5 oz) to 2 kilograms (5 lb) in weight per individual fruit. The skin is leather-like, waxy, smooth, and fragrant, with colors ranging from green to yellow, yellow-orange, yellow-red, or blushed with various shades of red, purple, pink, or yellow when fully ripe.[4]
Ripe intact mangoes give off a distinctiveresinous, sweet smell.[4] Inside the pit 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick is a thin lining covering a singleseed, 4–7 cm (1.6–2.8 in) long. Mangoes haverecalcitrant seeds which do not survive freezing and drying.[14] Mango trees grow readily from seeds, withgermination success highest when seeds are obtained from mature fruits.[4]
From their center of origin, mangoes diverged into two genetically distinct populations: the subtropical Indian group and the tropical Southeast Asian group. The Indian group is characterized by havingmonoembryonic fruits, whilepolyembryonic fruits characterize the Southeast Asian group.[1][2]
It was previously believed that mangoes originated from a singledomestication event in South Asia before being spread to Southeast Asia, but a 2019 study found no evidence of a center of diversity in India. Instead, it identified a higher unique genetic diversity in Southeast Asian cultivars than in Indian cultivars, indicating that mangoes may have originally been domesticated first in Southeast Asia before being introduced to South Asia. However, the authors also cautioned that the diversity in Southeast Asian mangoes might be the result of other reasons (likeinterspecific hybridization with otherMangifera species native to theMalesian ecoregion). Nevertheless, the existence of two distinct genetic populations also identified by the study indicates that the domestication of the mango is more complex than previously assumed and would at least indicate multiple domestication events in Southeast Asia and South Asia.[1][2]
There are hundreds of named mango cultivars. In mangoorchards, several cultivars are often grown to improve pollination. Many desired cultivars aremonoembryonic and must be propagated bygrafting, or they do not breed true. A common monoembryonic cultivar is'Alphonso', an important export product, considered "the king of mangoes".[16]
Cultivars that excel in one climate may fail elsewhere. For example, Indian cultivars such as 'Julie,' a prolific cultivar in Jamaica, require annualfungicide treatments to escape the lethalfungal diseaseanthracnose in Florida. Asian mangoes are resistant to anthracnose.[17]
The currentwestern market is dominated by the cultivar'Tommy Atkins', a seedling of'Haden' that first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida and was initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers.[18] Growers and importers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its excellent productivity and disease resistance,shelf life, transportability, size, and appealing color.[19] Although the Tommy Atkins cultivar is commercially successful, other cultivars may be preferred by consumers for eating pleasure, such as Alphonso.[16][19]
Generally, ripe mangoes have an orange-yellow or reddish peel and are juicy for eating, while exported fruit are often picked while underripe with green peels. Although producingethylene while ripening, unripened exported mangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as fresh fruit.
Distribution and habitat
Mango tree
From tropical Asia, mangoes were introduced to East Africa byArab andPersian traders in the ninth to tenth centuries. The 14th-century Moroccan travelerIbn Battuta reported it atMogadishu.[20] It was spread further into other areas around the world during theColonial Era. ThePortuguese Empire spread the mango from their colony inGoa to East and West Africa. From West Africa, they introduced it to Brazil from the 16th to the 17th centuries. From Brazil, it spread northwards to theCaribbean and eastern Mexico by the mid to late 18th century. TheSpanish Empire also introduced mangoes directly from the Philippines to western Mexico via theManila galleons from at least the 16th century. Mangoes were only introduced to Florida by 1833.[2][21]
Cultivation
The mango is now cultivated in mostfrost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates. It is cultivated extensively in South Asia, Southeast Asia,East and West Africa, the tropical and subtropical Americas, and theCaribbean.[22] Mangoes are also grown inAndalusia, Spain (mainly inMálaga province), as its coastal subtropical climate is one of the few places in mainland Europe that permits the growth of tropical plants and fruit trees. TheCanary Islands are another notable Spanish producer of the fruit. Other minor cultivators include North America (in South Florida and the CaliforniaCoachella Valley), Hawai'i, and Australia.[23]
Many commercialcultivars grown in Europe are grafted onto the cold-hardy rootstock of theGomera-1 mango cultivar, originally from Cuba. Its root system is well adapted to a coastal Mediterranean climate.[24] Many of the 1,000+ mango cultivars are easilycultivated using grafted saplings, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste ofturpentine[25]) to the Bullock's Heart. Dwarf or semidwarf varieties serve asornamental plants and can be grown in containers. Awide variety of diseases can afflict mangoes.[citation needed] Spongy tissue, a ripening disorder correlated withcalcium deficiency and characterized by spongy, brown-black flesh beginning near the seeds,[26] was estimated in 1989 to affect approximately 30% of Alphonso mangoes.[27]
*includes mangosteens and guavas; Source:FAOSTAT of the United Nations[28]
A breakthrough in mango cultivation was the use ofpotassium nitrate andethrel to induce flowering in mangoes. The discovery was made byFilipinohorticulturistRamon Barba in 1974 and was developed from the unique traditional method of inducing mango flowering using smoke in the Philippines. It allowed mango plantations to induce regular flowering and fruiting year-round. Previously, mangoes were seasonal because they only flowered every 16 to 18 months. The method is now used in most mango-producing countries.[29][30]
Production
In 2023, world production of mangoes (report includesmangosteens andguavas) was 61 milliontonnes, led by India with 43% of the total, andIndonesia and China as secondary producers (table).
Mangoes are generally sweet, although the taste and texture of the flesh vary across cultivars; some, such asAlphonso, have a soft, pulpy, juicy texture similar to an overripeplum, while others, such asTommy Atkins, are firmer with a fibrous texture.[31]
The skin of unripe,pickled, or cooked mango can be eaten, but it has the potential to causecontact dermatitis of the lips,gingiva, or tongue in susceptible people.[32]
Mangoes are used in many cuisines. Sour, unripe mangoes are used inchutneys (i.e.,mango chutney),pickles,daals and other side dishes inIndian cuisine. A summer drink calledaam panna is made with mangoes. Mango pulp made into jelly or cooked with red gramdhal and green chilies may be served with cooked rice.Mango lassi is consumed throughout South Asia, prepared by mixing ripe mangoes or mango pulp withbuttermilk and sugar. Ripe mangoes are also used to make curries.Aamras is a thick juice made of mangoes with sugar or milk and is consumed withchapatis orpooris. The pulp from ripe mangoes is also used to make jam calledmangada. Andhraaavakaaya is a pickle made from raw, unripe, pulpy, and sour mango mixed with chili powder,fenugreek seeds,mustard powder, salt, andgroundnut oil. Mango is also used to makedahl andchunda (a sweet and spicy, grated mango delicacy). InIndonesian cuisine, unripe mango is processed intoasinan,rujak andsambal pencit/mangga muda,[33] or eaten withedible salt.[34]
Mangoes are used to makemurabba (fruit preserves),muramba (a sweet, grated mango delicacy),amchur (dried and powdered unripe mango), and pickles, including a spicy mustard-oil pickle and alcohol. Ripe mangoes are cut into thin layers,desiccated, folded, and then cut. The fruit is also added to cereal products such asmuesli and oatgranola.
Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on ice cream or blended with milk and ice asmilkshakes. Sweet glutinous rice is flavored withcoconut, then served with sliced mango asmango sticky rice. In other parts of Southeast Asia, mangoes are pickled with fish sauce andrice vinegar. Green mangoes can be used in mango salad with fish sauce anddried shrimp. Mango withcondensed milk may be used as a topping forshaved ice.
Raw green mangoes can be sliced and eaten like a salad.[35] In most parts of Southeast Asia, they are commonly eaten withfish sauce, vinegar, soy sauce, or with a dash of salt (plain or spicy) – a combination usually known as "mango salad" in English.[36]
Major flavor chemicals of 'Alphonso' mango from India
In the Philippines, green mangoes are also commonly eaten withbagoong (saltyfish orshrimp paste), salt,soy sauce, vinegar, or chilis.[37][38]Mango float andmango cake, which use slices of ripe mangoes, are eaten in the Philippines.[39][40]Dried strips of sweet, ripe mango (sometimes combined with seedlesstamarind to formmangorind) are also consumed. Mangoes may be used to make juices, mangonectar, and as a flavoring and major ingredient in mangoice cream andsorbetes.
Phytochemical and nutrient content appears to vary across mangocultivars.[47] Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest of which was beta-carotene, which accounts for the yellow-orangepigmentation of most mango cultivars.[48] Mango leaves also have significant polyphenol content, includingxanthonoids, mangiferin and gallic acid.[49]
Flavor
Theflavor of mango fruits is conferred by several volatile organic chemicals mainly belonging toterpene,furanone,lactone, andester classes. Different varieties orcultivars of mangoes can have flavors made up of different volatile chemicals or the same volatile chemicals in different quantities.[50] In general,New World mango cultivars are characterized by the dominance of δ-3-carene, a monoterpene flavorant; whereas, high concentration of other monoterpenes such as (Z)-ocimene and myrcene, as well as the presence of lactones and furanones, is the unique feature ofOld World cultivars.[51][52][53] In India,'Alphonso' is one of the most popular cultivars. In 'Alphonso' mango, the lactones, and furanones are synthesized during ripening, whereas terpenes and the other flavorants are present in both the developing (immature) and ripening fruits.[54][55][56]Ethylene, a ripening-related hormone well known to be involved in ripening of mango fruits, causes changes in the flavor composition of mango fruits upon exogenous application, as well.[57][58] In contrast to the huge amount of information available on the chemical composition of mango flavor, the biosynthesis of these chemicals has not been studied in depth; only a handful of genes encoding the enzymes of flavor biosynthetic pathways have been characterized to date.[59][60][61][62]
Contact with oils in mango leaves, stems, sap, and skin can causedermatitis andanaphylaxis in susceptible individuals.[4][32][65] Those with a history of contact dermatitis induced byurushiol (an allergen found inpoison ivy,poison oak, orpoison sumac) may be most at risk for mango contact dermatitis.[66] Other mango compounds potentially responsible for dermatitis or allergic reactions includemangiferin.[4] Cross-reactions may occur between mango allergens and urushiol.[67] Sensitized individuals may not be able to eat peeled mangoes or drink mango juice safely.[4]
When mango trees are flowering in spring, local people with allergies may experience breathing difficulty, itching of the eyes, or facial swelling, even before flowerpollen becomes airborne. In this case, the irritant is likely to be thevaporizedessential oil from flowers. During the primary ripening season of mangoes, contact with mango plant parts – primarilysap, leaves, and fruit skin[4] – is the most common cause of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[68]
Nutrition
A raw mango is 84% water, 15%carbohydrates, 1%protein, and has negligible fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw mango supplies 60calories and is a rich source ofvitamin C (40% of theDaily Value, DV) with moderate amounts offolate (11% DV) andcopper (12% DV), while othermicronutrients are low in content (table).
The mango is thenational fruit of India.[69][70] It is also thenational tree of Bangladesh.[71][72] In India, harvest and sale of mangoes is during March–May and this is annually covered by news agencies.[16]
The mango has a traditional context in the culture of South Asia. In hisedicts, the Mauryan emperorAshoka references the planting of fruit- and shade-bearing trees along imperial roads:
"On the roadsbanyan-trees were caused to be planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and) mango-groves were caused to be planted."
In medieval India, the Indo-Persian poetAmir Khusrau termed the mango "Naghza Tarin Mewa Hindustan" – "the fairest fruit of Hindustan". Mangoes were enjoyed at the court of the Delhi SultanAlauddin Khijli. The Mughal Empire was especially fond of the fruits:Babur praises the mango in hisBabarnameh. At the same time,Sher Shah Suri inaugurated the creation of theChaunsa variety after his victory over the Mughal emperorHumayun. Mughal patronage of horticulture led to the grafting of thousands of mangoes varieties, including the famousTotapuri, which was the first variety to be exported to Iran and Central Asia.[citation needed]Akbar (1556–1605) is said to have planted a mango orchard of 100,000 trees nearDarbhanga, Bihar,[73] whileJahangir andShah Jahan ordered the planting of mango orchards in Lahore and Delhi and the creation of mango-based desserts.[74]
TheJain goddessAmbika is traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree.[75] Mango blossoms are also used in the worship of the goddessSaraswati. Mango leaves decorate archways and doors in Indian houses during weddings and celebrations such asGanesh Chaturthi. Mangomotifs andpaisleys are widely used in different Indianembroidery styles, and are found inKashmiri shawls,Kanchipuram and silksarees. InTamil Nadu, the mango is referred to as one of the three royal fruits, along withbanana andjackfruit, for their sweetness and flavor.[76] This triad of fruits is referred to asma-pala-vazhai. The classical Sanskrit poetKalidasa sang the praises of mangoes.[77]
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^Hunsberger, Adrian; Balerdi, Carlos (February 2012)."DOORYARD DISEASE CONTROL FOR MANGOS IN FLORIDA"(PDF). University of Florida/IFAS Miami-Dade County Extension. Retrieved10 March 2023.Mango varieties that are susceptible to anthracnose are: 'Cogshall', 'Graham', 'Haden', 'Irwin', 'Julie', 'Kent', 'Mallika', 'Valencia Pride', 'Zill', and others. Those that are susceptible to powdery mildew are: 'Alphonso', 'Carrie', 'Glenn', 'Haden', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Nam Doc Mai', 'Zill' and a few others. These will most likely need to be sprayed with fungicides each year.
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^Barreto JC, Trevisan MT, Hull WE, et al. (2008). "Characterization and quantitation of polyphenolic compounds in bark, kernel, leaves, and peel of mango (Mangifera indica L.)".J Agric Food Chem.56 (14):5599–610.Bibcode:2008JAFC...56.5599B.doi:10.1021/jf800738r.PMID18558692.
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^Curtis Morgan (22 June 1995). "The Nation Is Discovering What South Floridans Have Long Known: Mango Is the Sexiest Fruit on Earth". Food.The Miami Herald. p. 1E.Mango culture owes much to Akbar, emperor of India's Mogul conquerors from 1556 to 1605, who planted an orchard of 100,000 trees near Darbhanga in Eastern India.
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