There are many styles of mandolin, but the three most common types are theNeapolitan orround-backed mandolin, thearchtop mandolin and theflat-backed mandolin. The round-backed version has a deep bottom, constructed of strips of wood, glued together into a bowl. Thearchtop, also known as thecarved-top mandolin, has an arched top and a shallower, arched back both carved out of wood. The flat-backed mandolin uses thin sheets of wood for the body, braced on the inside for strength in a similar manner to a guitar. Each style of instrument has its own sound quality and is associated with particular styles of music. Neapolitan mandolins feature prominently in Europeanclassical music and intraditional music like theAndean music of Peru.[1][2][3] Archtop instruments are common in Americanfolk music andbluegrass music. Flat-backed instruments are commonly used in Irish, British, and Brazilian folk music, and Mexicanestudiantinas.
Other mandolin variations differ primarily in the number of strings and include four-string models (tuned in fifths) such as the Brescian and Cremonese; six-string types (tuned infourths) such as the Milanese, Lombard, and Sicilian; six-course instruments of 12 strings (two strings per course) such as the Genoese; and thetricordia, with four triple-string courses (12 strings total).[4]
Design changes in the history of the mandolin have often involved the soundboard (the top). Early instruments were quiet, strung with gut strings, and plucked with the fingers or with a quill. Modern instruments are louder, using metal strings, which exert more pressure than the gut strings. The modern soundboard is designed to withstand the pressure of metal strings that would break earlier instruments. The soundboard comes in many shapes—but generally round or teardrop-shaped, sometimes with scrolls or other projections. It usually has one or moresound holes in it, which may be round, oval, or shaped like a calligraphicf (f-hole). A round or oval sound hole may be covered with a decorative rosette or bordered withpurfling.[5][6]
In 1787,Luigi Bassi played the role ofDon Giovanni inMozart's opera, serenading a woman with a mandolin. This used to be the common picture of the mandolin, an obscure instrument of romance in the hands of a Spanish nobleman[7]
Mandolins evolved fromlutes, a family of instruments in Europe. Predecessors include thegittern andmandore or mandola inItaly during the 17th and 18th centuries. There were a variety of regional variants, but the two most widespread ones were the Neapolitan mandolin and the Lombard mandolin. The Neapolitan style has spread worldwide.
Anatomy of a bowlback mandolin in schematic drawing
Mandolins have a body that acts as aresonator, attached to aneck. The resonating body may be shaped as a bowl (necked bowl lutes) or a box (necked box lutes). Traditional Italian mandolins, such as the Neapolitan mandolin, meet the necked bowl description.[8] The necked box instruments include archtop mandolins and the flatback mandolins.[9]
Strings run between mechanical tuning machines at the top of the neck to a tailpiece that anchors the other end of the strings. The strings are suspended over the neck andsoundboard and pass over afloating bridge.[10][better source needed] The bridge is kept in contact with the soundboard by the downward pressure from the strings. The neck is either flat or has a slight radius, and is covered with a fingerboard withfrets.[11][12][13] The action of the strings on the bridge causes the soundboard to vibrate, producing sound.[14]
Like any plucked instrument, mandolin notes decay to silence rather than sound out continuously as with a bowed note on aviolin, and mandolin notes decay faster than larger chordophones like the guitar. This encourages the use oftremolo (rapid picking of one or more pairs of strings) to create sustained notes or chords. The mandolin's paired strings facilitate this technique: the plectrum (pick) strikes each of a pair of strings alternately, providing a more full and continuous sound than a single string would.
Various design variations and amplification techniques have been used to make mandolins comparable in volume with louder instruments and orchestras, including the creation ofmandolin-banjo hybrids with the drum-like body of the louderbanjo, adding metal resonators (most notably byDobro and theNational String Instrument Corporation) to make aresonator mandolin, and amplifyingelectric mandolins through amplifiers.
A variety of different tunings are used. Usually,courses of 2 adjacent strings are tuned in unison. By far the most common tuning is the same as violin tuning, inscientific pitch notation G3–D4–A4–E5, or inHelmholtz pitch notation: g–d′–a′–e″.
The numbers of Hz shown above assume a440 Hz A, standard in most parts of the western world. Some players use an A up to 10 Hz above or below a 440, mainly outside the United States.
Other tunings exist, includingcross-tunings, in which the usually doubled string runs are tuned to different pitches. Additionally, guitarists may sometimes tune a mandolin to mimic a portion of the intervals on a standard guitar tuning to achieve familiar fretting patterns.
The mandolin is the soprano member of the mandolin family, as theviolin is the soprano member of theviolin family. Like the violin, its scale length is typically about 13 inches (330 mm). Modern American mandolins modelled after Gibsons have a longerscale, about13+7⁄8 inches (350 mm). The strings in each of its double-strungcourses are tuned in unison, and the courses use the same tuning as the violin: G3–D4–A4–E5.
Thepiccolo orsopranino mandolin is a rare member of the family, tuned one octave above the mandola and one fourth above the mandolin (C4–G4–D5–A5); the same relation as that of thepiccolo (to thewestern concert flute) orviolino piccolo (to theviolin andviola). One model was manufactured by the Lyon & Healy company under the Leland brand. A handful of modern intruments makers build piccolo mandolins.
Themandola, termed thetenor mandola in Britain and Ireland andliola oralto mandolin in continental Europe, is tuned a fifth below the mandolin, in the same relationship as that of theviola to theviolin. Some also call this instrument the "alto mandola". Its scale length is typically about16+1⁄2 inches (420 mm). It is normally tuned like a viola (perfect fifth below the mandolin) and tenor banjo: C3–G3–D4–A4.
Theoctave mandolin (US and Canada), termed theoctave mandola in Britain and Ireland andmandola in continental Europe, is tuned an octave below the mandolin: G2–D3–A3–E4. Its relationship to the mandolin is that of thetenor violin to the violin, or thetenor saxophone to thesoprano saxophone. Octave mandolin scale length is typically about 20 inches (510 mm), although instruments with scales as short as 17 inches (430 mm) or as long as 21 inches (530 mm) are not unknown.
The instrument has a variant off the coast of South America in Trinidad, where it is known as thebandol, a flat-backed instrument with four courses, the lower two strung with metal and nylon strings.[15]
Musician with cittern, RI Scottish Highland Festival, June 2012
A waldzither
TheIrish bouzouki, though not strictly a member of the mandolin family, has a reasonable resemblance and similar range to the octave mandolin. It derives from theGreek bouzouki (a long-necked lute), constructed like a flat-backed mandolin and uses fifth-based tunings, most often G2–D3–A3–D4. Other tunings include: A2–D3–A3–D4, G2–D3–A3–E4 (an octave below the mandolin—in which case it essentially functions as an octave mandolin), G2–D3–G3–D4 or A2–D3–A3–E4. Although the Irish bouzouki's bass course pairs are most often tuned in unison, on some instruments one of each pair is replaced with a lighter string and tuned in octaves, similar to the 12-stringguitar. While occupying the same range as the octave mandolin/octave mandola, the Irish bouzouki is theoretically distinguished from the former instrument by its longer scale length, typically from 24 to 26 inches (610 to 660 mm), although scales as long as 27 inches (690 mm), which is the usual Greek bouzouki scale, are not unknown. In modern usage, however, the terms "octave mandolin" and "Irish bouzouki" are often used interchangeably to refer to the same instrument.
The moderncittern may also be loosely included in an "extended" mandolin family, based on resemblance to the flat-backed mandolins, which it predates. Its own lineage dates it back tothe Renaissance. It is typically a five course (ten-string) instrument having a scale length between 20 and 22 inches (510 and 560 mm). The instrument is most often tuned to either D2–G2–D3–A3–D4 or G2–D3–A3–D4–A4, and is essentially anoctave mandola with a fifth course at either the top or the bottom of its range. Some luthiers, such as Stefan Sobell, also refer to the octave mandola or a shorter-scaled Irish bouzouki as a cittern, irrespective of whether it has four or five courses.
Other relatives of the cittern, which might also be loosely linked to the mandolins (and are sometimes tuned and played as such), include the 6-course/12-stringPortuguese guitar and the 5-course/9-stringwaldzither.
Neapolitan styled mandocello built to26+3⁄8-inch (670 mm) scale
19th- and 20th-century laouta
Algerian mandole (flatback) from the side
Themandocello is classically tuned to an octave plus a fifth below the mandolin, in the same relationship as that of thecello to the violin, its strings being tuned to C2–G2–D3–A3. Its scale length is typically about 26 inches (660 mm). A typical violoncello scale is 27 inches (690 mm).
Themandolone was aBaroque member of the mandolin family in the bass range that was surpassed by the mandocello. It was part of the Neapolitan mandolin family.
The Greeklaouto orlaghouto (long-necked lute) is similar to a mandocello, ordinarily tuned C3/C2–G3/G2–D3/D3–A3/A3 with half of each pair of the lower two courses being tuned an octave high on a lighter gauge string. The body is a staved bowl, the saddle-less bridge glued to the flat face like most ouds and lutes, with mechanical tuners, steel strings, and tied gut frets. Modern laoutos, as played on Crete, have the entire lower course tuned to C3, areentrant octave above the expected low C. Its scale length is typically about 28 inches (710 mm).
The Algerianmandole was developed by an Italianluthier in the early 1930s, scaled up from a mandola until it reached a scale length of approximately 25 to 27 inches.[16] It is a flatback instrument, with a wide neck and 4 courses (8 strings), 5 courses (10 strings) or 6 courses (12 strings), and is used in Algeria and Morocco. The instrument can be tuned as a guitar,oud, or mandocello, depending on the music it will be used to play and player preference. When tuning it as a guitar the strings will be tuned (E2) (E2) A2 A2 D3 D3 G3 G3 B3 B3 (E4) (E4);[17] strings in parentheses are dropped for a five- or four-course instrument. Using a common Arabic oud tuning D2 D2 G2 G2 A2 A2 D3 D3 (G3) (G3) (C4) (C4).[18] For a mandocello tuning using fifths C2 C2 G2 G2 D3 D3 A3 A3 (E4) (E4).[19]
Themandobass is the bass version of the mandolin, just as thedouble bass is the bass to the violin. Like the double bass, it most frequently has four single strings, rather than double courses—and like the double bass, it is most commonly tuned toperfect fourths rather than fifths like most mandolin family instruments: E1–A1–D2–G2,. These were made by the Gibson company in the early 20th century and were never very common. A smaller scale four-string mandobass, usually tuned in fifths: G1–D2–A2–E3 (two octaves below the mandolin), though not as resonant as the larger instrument, was often preferred by players as easier to handle and more portable.[20] Reportedly, however, mostmandolin orchestras preferred to use the ordinarydouble bass, rather than a specialised mandolin family instrument. Calace and other Italian makers predating Gibson also made mandolin-basses.
The relatively rare eight-string mandobass, or "tremolo-bass", also exists, with double courses like the rest of the mandolin family, and is tuned either G1–D2–A2–E3, two octaves lower than the mandolin, or C1–G1–D2–A2, two octaves below the mandola.[21][22]
Bowlback mandolins (also known as roundbacks), are used worldwide. They are most commonly manufactured in Europe, where the long history of mandolin development has created local styles. However, Japanese luthiers also make them.
Owing to the shape and to the common construction from wood strips of alternating colors, in the United States these are sometimes colloquially referred to as the "potato bug", "potato beetle", or tater-bug mandolin.[23]
The Neapolitan style has an almond-shaped body resembling a bowl, constructed from curved strips of wood. It usually has a bentsound table, canted in two planes with the design to take the tension of the eight metal strings arranged in four courses. A hardwoodfingerboard sits on top of or is flush with the sound table. Very old instruments may use woodentuning pegs, while newer instruments tend to use gearedmetal tuners. Thebridge is a movable length of hardwood. Apickguard is glued below the sound hole under the strings.[24][25][26] European roundbacks commonly use a 13-inch (330 mm)scale instead of the13+7⁄8 inches (350 mm) common on archtop Mandolins.[27]
Intertwined with the Neapolitan style is the Roman style mandolin, which has influenced it.[28] The Roman mandolin had a fingerboard that was more curved and narrow.[28] The fingerboard was lengthened over the sound hole for the E strings, the high pitched strings.[28] The shape of the back of the neck was different, less rounded with an edge, the bridge was curved making the G strings higher.[28] The Roman mandolin had mechanical tuning gears before the Neapolitan.[28]
Modern bowlback mandolin manufactured by theCalace family workshop
1897 Advertisement for a Lyon and Healy-made,Washburn brand mandolin
Martin mandolins andharp mandolin on display at the Martin Guitar Factory
Prominent Italian manufacturers include Vinaccia (Naples),Embergher[29] (Rome) andCalace (Naples).[30] Other modern manufacturers include Lorenzo Lippi (Milan), Hendrik van den Broek (Netherlands), Brian Dean (Canada), Salvatore Masiello and Michele Caiazza (La Bottega del Mandolino) and Ferrara, Gabriele Pandini.[27]
In the United States, when the bowlback was being made in numbers,Lyon and Healy was a major manufacturer, especially under the "Washburn" brand.[30] Other American manufacturers includeMartin, Vega, and Larson Brothers.[30]
In Canada, Brian Dean has manufactured instruments in Neapolitan, Roman, German and American styles[31] but is also known for his original 'Grand Concert' design created for American virtuosoJoseph Brent.[32]
German manufacturers include Albert & Mueller, Dietrich, Klaus Knorr, Reinhold Seiffert and Alfred Woll.[27][30] The German bowlbacks use a style developed by Seiffert, with a larger and rounder body.[27]
Japanese brands include Kunishima and Suzuki.[33] Other Japanese manufacturers include Oona, Kawada, Noguchi, Toichiro Ishikawa, Rokutaro Nakade, Otiai Tadao, Yoshihiko Takusari, Nokuti Makoto, Watanabe, Kanou Kadama and Ochiai.[27][34]
Lombard mandolin with twelve strings in six courses. The bridge is glued to the soundboard, like a guitar's bridge.
Giovanni Vailati, "Blind mandolinist of Cremona", toured Europe in the 1850s with a six-string Lombard mandolin.[35]
Genoese mandolin with twelve strings in six courses. The bridge is held to the soundboard by the strings.
Another family of bowlback mandolins came fromMilan andLombardy.[36] These mandolins are closer to the mandolino ormandore than other modern mandolins.[36] They are shorter and wider than the standard Neapolitan mandolin, with a shallow back.[37] The instruments have 6 strings, 3 wire treble-strings and 3 gut or wire-wrapped-silk bass-strings.[36][37] The strings ran between the tuning pegs and a bridge that was glued to the soundboard, as a guitar's. The Lombard mandolins were tuned g–b–e′–a′–d″–g″ (shown inHelmholtz pitch notation).[37] A developer of the Milanese style was Antonio Monzino (Milan) and his family who made them for six generations.[36]
Samuel Adelstein described the Lombard mandolin in 1893 as wider and shorter than the Neapolitan mandolin, with a shallower back and a shorter and wider neck, with six single strings to the regular mandolin's set of 4.[38] The Lombard was tuned C–D–A–E–B–G.[38] The strings were fastened to the bridge like a guitar's.[38] There were 20 frets, covering three octaves, with an additional 5 notes.[38] When Adelstein wrote, there were no nylon strings, and the gut and single strings "do not vibrate so clearly and sweetly as the double steel string of the Neapolitan."[38]
Brescian mandolins (also known as Cremonese) that have survived in museums have four gut strings instead of six and a fixed bridge.[39][40] The mandolin was tuned in fifths, like the Neapolitan mandolin.[39] In his 1805mandolin method,Anweisung die Mandoline von selbst zu erlernen nebst einigen Uebungsstucken von Bortolazzi,Bartolomeo Bortolazzi popularised the Cremonese mandolin, which had four single-strings and a fixed bridge, to which the strings were attached.[41][40] Bortolazzi said in this book that the new wire-strung mandolins were uncomfortable to play, when compared with the gut-string instruments.[41] Also, he felt they had a "less pleasing...hard, zither-like tone" as compared to the gut string's "softer, full-singing tone."[41]He favored the four single strings of the Cremonese instrument, which were tuned the same as the Neapolitan.[40][41]
Like the Lombard mandolin, theGenoese mandolin was not tuned in fifths. Its 6 gut strings (or 6 courses of strings) were tuned as a guitar but one octave higher: e-a-d’-g’-b natural-e”.[42][43] Like the Neapolitan and unlike the Lombard mandolin, the Genoese does not have the bridge glued to the soundboard, but holds the bridge on with downward tension, from strings that run between the bottom and neck of the instrument. The neck was wider than the Neapolitan mandolin's neck.[42] The peg-head is similar to the guitar's.[43]
1916 Gibson F4 with arched and carved top, curled scroll and oval soundhole
1924 Gibson F-5 mandolin, with f-shaped soundholes designed by Lloyd Loar
1921 Gibson A4 mandolin
At the very end of the 19th century, a new style, with a carved top and back construction inspired by violin family instruments began to supplant the European-style bowl-back instruments in the United States. This new style is credited to mandolins designed and built byOrville Gibson, a Kalamazoo, Michigan, instrument maker who founded the "Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Manufacturing Co., Limited" in 1902. Gibson mandolins evolved into two basic styles: the Florentine or F-style, which has a decorative scroll near the neck, two points on the lower body and usually a scroll carved into the headstock; and the A-style, which is pear-shaped, has no points and usually has a simpler headstock.
These styles generally have either two f-shaped soundholes like aviolin (F-5 and A-5), or a single oval sound hole (F-4 and A-4 and lower models) directly under the strings. Much variation exists between makers working from these archetypes, and other variants have become increasingly common. Generally, in the United States, GibsonF-hole F-5 mandolins and mandolins influenced by that design are strongly associated with bluegrass, while the A-style is associated with other types of music, although it too is most often used for and associated with bluegrass. The F-5's more complicated woodwork also translates into a more expensive instrument.
Internal bracing to support the top in the F-style mandolins is usually achieved with parallel tone bars, similar to the bass bar on a violin. Some makers instead employ "X-bracing", which is two tone-bars mortised together to form an X. Some luthiers now using a "modified x-bracing" that incorporates both a tone bar and X-bracing.
Numerous modern mandolin makers build instruments that largely replicate the Gibson F-5 Artist models built in the early 1920s under the supervision of Gibson acousticianLloyd Loar. Original Loar-signed instruments are sought after and extremely valuable. Other makers from the Loar period and earlier includeLyon and Healy, Vega andLarson Brothers.
The ideal for archtops has been solid pieces of wood carved into the right shape. However, another archtop exists, the top made of laminated wood or thin sheets of solid wood, pressed into the arched shape. These have become increasingly common in the world of internationally constructed musical instruments in the 21st century.
Pressed-top instruments are made to appear the same as carved-top instruments but do not sound the same as carved-wood tops. Carved-wood tops when carved to the ideal thickness, produce the sound consumers expect. Not carving them correctly dulls the sound. The sound of a carved-wood instrument changes the longer it is played, and older instruments are sought out for their rich sound.
Laminated-wood presstops are less resonant than carved wood, the wood and glue vibrating differently than wood grain. Presstops made of solid wood have the wood's natural grain compressed, typically creating a sound that is less full than a well-made, carved-top mandolin.
The bandolim is a Portuguese variant of the mandolin family. Instruments are flat on top and back.
Army-Navy style mandolin
Flatback mandolins use a thin sheet of wood with bracing for the back, as a guitar uses, rather than the bowl of the bowlback or the arched back of the carved mandolins.
Like the bowlback, the flatback has a round sound hole. This has been sometimes modified to an elongated hole, called a D-hole. The body has a rounded almond shape with flat or sometimes canted soundboard.[44]
The type was developed in Europe in the 1850s.[44] The French and Germans called it a Portuguese mandolin, although they also developed it locally.[44] The Germans used it inWandervogel.[45]
The bandolim is commonly used wherever the Spanish and Portuguese took it: in South America, in Brazil (Choro) and in the Philippines.[45]
In the early 1970s English luthier Stefan Sobell developed a large-bodied, flat-backed mandolin with a carved soundboard, based on his owncittern design; this is often called a 'Celtic' mandolin.[46][47]
American forms include the Army-Navy mandolin, the flatiron and the pancake mandolins.
The tone of the flatback is described as warm or mellow, suitable for folk music and smaller audiences. The instrument sound does not punch through the other players' sound like a carved top does.
The double top is a feature that luthiers are experimenting with in the 21st century, to get better sound.[48] However, mandolinists and luthiers have been experimenting with them since at least the early 1900s.
Back in the early 1900s, mandolinistGinislao Paris approachedLuigi Embergher to build custom mandolins.[49] The sticker inside one of the four surviving instruments indicates the build was called after him, theSistema Ginislao Paris).[49] Paris' round-back double-top mandolins use a false back below the soundboard to create a second hollow space within the instrument.[49]
Modern mandolinists such asJoseph Brent andAvi Avital use instruments customized, either by the luthier's choice or at the request of the player.[48][50] Joseph Brent's mandolin, made by Brian Dean also uses what Brent calls a false back.[51] Brent's mandolin was the luthier's solution to Brent's request for a loud mandolin in which the wood was clearly audible, with less metallic sound from the strings.[48] The type used by Avital is variation of the flatback, with a double top that encloses a resonating chamber, sound holes on the side, and a convex back.[52] It is made by one manufacturer in Israel, luthier Arik Kerman.[53] Other players of Kerman mandolins include Alon Sariel,[54][55]Jacob Reuven,[53] and Tom Cohen.[56]
Other American-made variants include the mandolinetto orHowe-Orme guitar-shaped mandolin (manufactured by theElias Howe Company between 1897 and roughly 1920), which featured a cylindrical bulge along the top from fingerboard end to tailpiece and the Vega mando-lute (more commonly called acylinder-back mandolin manufactured by theVega Company between 1913 and roughly 1927), which had a similar longitudinal bulge but on the back rather than the front of the instrument.
An instrument with a mandolin neck paired with a banjo-style body was patented by Benjamin Bradbury of Brooklyn in 1882 and given the namebanjolin by John Farris in 1885.[57] Todaybanjolin is sometimes reserved to describe an instrument with four strings, while the version with the four courses of double strings is called amandolin-banjo.
Aresonator mandolin or "resophonic mandolin" is a mandolin whose sound is produced by one or more metal cones (resonators) instead of the customary wooden soundboard (mandolin top/face). Historic brands includeDobro and National.
As with almost every other contemporary chordophone, another modern variant is theelectric mandolin. These mandolins can have four or five individual or double courses of strings. They were developed in the early 1930s, contemporaneous with the development of theelectric guitar. They come insolid body andacoustic electric forms.
Specific instruments have been designed to overcome the mandolin's rapid decay with its plucked notes.[58] Fender released a model in 1992 with an additional string (a high A, above the E string), a tremolo bridge and extrahumbuckerpickup (total of two).[58] The result was an instrument capable of playing heavy metal style guitarriffs or violin-like passages with sustained notes that can be adjusted as with an electric guitar.[58]
Italian mandolin virtuoso and child prodigyGiuseppe Pettine (pictured 1898) brought the Italian playing style to America where he settled in Providence, Rhode Island, as a mandolin teacher and composer. Pettine is credited with promoting a style where "one player plays both the rhythmic chords and the lyric melodic line at once, combining single strokes and tremolo"[59]
The international repertoire of music for mandolin is almost unlimited, and musicians use it to play various types of music. This is especially true of violin music, since the mandolin has the same tuning as the violin. Following its invention and early development in Italy the mandolin spread throughout the European continent. The instrument was primarily used in a classical tradition with Mandolin orchestras, so-calledEstudiantinas or in GermanyZupforchestern appearing in many cities. Following this continental popularity of the mandolin family local traditions appeared outside Europe in the Americas and in Japan. Travelling mandolin virtuosi likeCarlo Curti,Giuseppe Pettine,Raffaele Calace andSilvio Ranieri contributed to the mandolin becoming a "fad" instrument in the early 20th century.[59] This "mandolin craze" was fading by the 1930s, but just as this practice was falling into disuse, the mandolin found a new niche in Americancountry,old-time music,bluegrass andfolk music. More recently, theBaroque andClassical mandolin repertory and styles have benefited from the raised awareness of and interest inEarly music, with media attention to classical players such as IsraeliAvi Avital, ItalianCarlo Aonzo, and AmericanJoseph Brent. In India, the mandolin is played in classicalCarnatic music. The musicianU. Srinivas was perhaps the greatest mandolin player in this style.[60] Lauded across the world for his virtuosity with the instrument, he died young.[61]
The mandolin appears sporadically in the Western Euoropean classical music tradition. It was often perceived historically as a folk instrument. Significant composers did write music specifically for the mandolin, but few large works were composed for it by the most widely regarded composers. The total number of these works is rather small in comparison to—say—those composed for violin. One result of this dearth being that there were few positions for mandolinists in regular orchestras. To fill this gap in the literature, mandolin orchestras have traditionally played many arrangements of music written for regular orchestras or other ensembles. Some players have sought out contemporary composers to solicit new works.
Furthermore, of the works that have been written for mandolin from the 18th century onward, many have been lost or forgotten. Some of these await discovery in museums and libraries and archives. One example of rediscovered 18th-century music for mandolin and ensembles with mandolins is theGimo collection, collected in the first half of 1762 by Jean Lefebure.[62] Lefebure collected the music in Italy, and it was forgotten until manuscripts were rediscovered.[62]
Vivaldi created some concertos for mandolinos and orchestra: one for 4-chord mandolino, string bass & continuo in C major, (RV 425), and one for two 5-chord mandolinos, bass strings & continuo in G major, (RV 532), and concerto for two mandolins, 2 violons "in Tromba"—2 flûtes à bec, 2 salmoe, 2 théorbes, violoncelle, cordes et basse continuein in C major (p. 16).
Beethoven composedmandolin music[63] and enjoyed playing the mandolin.[64] His 4 small pieces date from 1796: Sonatine WoO 43a; Adagio ma non troppo WoO 43b; Sonatine WoO 44a and Andante con Variazioni WoO 44b.
The operaDon Giovanni byMozart (1787) includes mandolin parts, including the accompaniment to the famous ariaDeh vieni alla finestra, andVerdi's operaOtello calls forguzla accompaniment in the ariaDove guardi splendono raggi, but the part is commonly performed on mandolin.[65]
Parts for mandolin are included in works bySchoenberg (Variations Op. 31),Stravinsky (Agon),Prokofiev (Romeo and Juliet) andWebern (opus Parts 10)
Some 20th-century composers also used the mandolin as their instrument of choice (amongst these are:Schoenberg,Webern,Stravinsky andProkofiev).
Among the most important European mandolin composers of the 20th century are Raffaele Calace (composer, performer and luthier) andGiuseppe Anedda (virtuoso concert pianist and professor of the first chair of the Conservatory of Italian Mandolin, Padua, 1975). Today representatives of Italian classical music and Italian classical-contemporary music includeUgo Orlandi, Carlo Aonzo,Dorina Frati,Mauro Squillante and Duilio Galfetti.
Japanese composers also produced orchestral music for mandolin in the 20th century, but these are not well known outside Japan. Notable composers includeMorishige Takei andYasuo Kuwahara.[66]
Traditional mandolin orchestras remain especially popular in Japan and Germany, but also exist throughout the United States, Europe and the rest of the world. They perform works composed for mandolin family instruments, or re-orchestrations of traditional pieces. The structure of a contemporary traditional mandolin orchestra consists of: first and second mandolins, mandolas (either octave mandolas, tuned an octave below the mandolin, or tenor mandolas, tuned like the viola), mandocellos (tuned like the cello), and bass instruments (conventional string bass or, rarely, mandobasses). Smaller ensembles, such as quartets composed of two mandolins, mandola, and mandocello, may also be found.
Aduet or duo is amusical composition for two performers in which the performers have equal importance to the piece. Amusical ensemble with more than two solo instruments or voices is called trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, etc.
Concerto: a musical composition generally composed of three movements, in which, usually, one solo instrument (for instance, a piano, violin, cello or flute) is accompanied by an orchestra orconcert band.
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^De Souza Pacheco, J. A. (2022). La construcción de lo andino en el imaginario musical fusión de la banda El Polen en la Lima cosmopolita de la década de 1970.
^Roger Vetter."Mandolin – Neapolitan".Grinnell College Musical Instrument Collection. Retrieved5 September 2015.
^Roger Vetter."Mandolin – flat-back".Grinnell College Musical Instrument Collection. Retrieved5 September 2015.a newly developed resonator design pioneered by the Gibson Company with arched top and back boards with f-shaped soundholes, like violin resonators
^Parfitt, David."Arab tuning".oud.eclipse.co.uk. Archived fromthe original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved29 July 2017.
^"Thomann Algerian Mondol 10 Standard".thomannmusic.com. Archived fromthe original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved29 July 2017.tuning: C – G – D – A – E, lower width ca. 35,2cm, body length ca. 54,2cm, total length thomann ca. 104,5cm, height incl. bridge ca. 13cm, height of the sides ca. 10cm, width upper nut ca. 4,4cm, scale length 32,4cm.
^Marcuse, Sibyl; Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary; W. W. Norton & Company (1975). (see entries formandolin, and for individual mandolin family members.)
^Johnson, J. R.; 'The Mandolin Orchestra in America, Part 3: Other Instruments',American Lutherie, No. 21 (Spring) 1990, pp. 45–46.
^Cohen, David J.; Rossing, Thomas D. (1 January 2001). "Mandolin Family Instruments". In Rossing, Thomas D. (ed.).The Science of String Instruments. Springer. pp. 77–98.ISBN978-1-4419-7110-4.
^ab"Mandolin,19th century Italian". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved4 April 2018."mandola o mandolino alla Genovese", this mandoline has six pairs of gut strings, fifteen rosewood ribs, and mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell inlays. It differs from other gut-strung mandolins in being tuned an octave higher than the modern guitar (e, a, d', g' b-natural, e") and having a guitar-like peg block
^abc"Joseph Brent's Brian N. Dean Grand Concert Mandolin".mandolincafe.org. 20 November 2011. Archived fromthe original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved29 May 2017.[He told the luthier:]..."I want to hear the wood, and not the metal." And, "I want it big and dark and loud, like the engine note on a Ford GT." ...I know there are lots of musicians like me who would love the chance to create an instrument that's more geared to the music they're making...It's got a lot of crazy features, like that aforementioned false back...
^Daniel, Bernie; Garber, Jimi."Re: Avi Avital and the Arik Kerman mandolin".mandolincafe.org. Retrieved29 May 2017....What is [the luthier] Kerman doing so different from the approach taken by American luthiers...The difference from the German models is that it has the sound holes on the edges and, even more important(?) has a double top.
^"Joseph Brent's Brian N. Dean Grand Concert Mandolin".mandolincafe.org. 20 November 2011. Archived fromthe original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved29 May 2017.[Brent's instrument has] ...maple sides/false back, spruce true back...It's got a lot of crazy features, like that aforementioned false back...
^ab"Thread: Avi Avital and the Arik Kerman mandolin".mandolincafe.com. Retrieved3 September 2015.This thread digressed into the topic of Avi's Kerman, where it was established that it has a double top and a convex back. … it looks like it is based on the modern German flatback as made by makers such as Seifert, a little deep-bodied. The difference from the German models is that it has the sound holes on the edges and, even more important(?) has a double top.
^"Alon Sariel interview".Mandolin.org.uk. Archived fromthe original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved3 September 2015.What mandolins do you own? Which one(s) is(are) your favourite(s)? Whoever knows the Beer-Sheva school of mandolin must have heard of the Israeli type of modern mandolins. A mandolin maker called Arik Kerman who lives in Tel-Aviv, invented a formula to make the mandolin in a way for which it has a much of a round and sweet sound, and can easily produce a very soft sound other than the metallic Neapolitan one...
^"Instrumentarium".Alon Sariel – mandolinist, conductor, lutenist. Archived fromthe original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved16 March 2018.
^"Concert artists: Tom Cohen".frusion.co.uk. Retrieved3 September 2015.The mandolin that Tom plays was built especially for him by Israeli artist Arik Kerman and new instrument is currently being built for, and inspired by him, by internationally-known luthier Boaz Elkayam.
^abcdeSandberg, Eric."The Gimo Music Collection".mutopiaproject.org. Retrieved18 May 2019.Gimo 76: G. Cocchi, Allegro assai – Largo – Allegro (note: there are two mandolin parts, but they are almost identical)
Johnson, Chad (2003).Hal Leonard Mandolin Chord Finder. United States: Hal Leonard.ISBN978-0-634-05422-8. A comprehensive chord dictionary.
Major, James (2002).Mandolin Chord Book. United States: Music Sales Ltd.ISBN978-0-8256-2296-0. A case-style chord dictionary.
Richards, Tobe A. (2007).The Mandolin Chord Bible: 2,736 Chords. United Kingdom: Cabot Books.ISBN978-1-906207-01-4. A very comprehensive chord dictionary.
Method and instructional guides
Bay, Mel (1987).Complete Mandolin Method. United States: Mel Bay.ISBN978-0-87166-763-2. Instructional guide.
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