| Mandaeism | |
|---|---|
| ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡅࡕࡀ | |
 A copy of theGinza Rabba in Arabic translation | |
| Type | Ethnic religion[1][page needed] |
| Classification | Gnosticism[1][page needed] |
| Scripture | Ginza Rabba,Qulasta,Mandaean Book of John (see more) |
| Theology | Dualism |
| Rishama | Sattar Jabbar Hilow[2] |
| Region | Iraq,Iran and diaspora communities |
| Language | Mandaic[3] |
| Separated from | Second Temple Judaism[4][5] |
| Number of followers | c. 60,000–100,000[6][7] |
| Other names | Nasoraeanism, Sabianism[a] |
 |
Gnostic sects and founders
|
Mandaeism[b] (Classical Mandaic:ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡅࡕࡀmandaiuta),[15] sometimes also known asNasoraeanism orSabianism,[a] is aGnostic,Dualistic andethnic religion withGreek,Iranian, andJewish influences.[16][17][18]: 1 Its adherents, theMandaeans, revereAdam,Abel,Seth,Enos,Noah,Shem,Aram, and especiallyJohn the Baptist. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem, and John the Baptist prophets, with Adam being the founder of the religion and John being the greatest andfinal prophet.[19]: 45 [20]
The Mandaeans speak anEastern Aramaic language known asMandaic. The name 'Mandaean' comes from theAramaicmanda, meaning knowledge.[21][22] Within the Middle East, but outside their community, the Mandaeans are more commonly known as theصُبَّةṢubba (singular:Ṣubbī), or as Sabians (الصابئة,al-Ṣābiʾa). The termṢubba is derived from an Aramaic root related tobaptism.[23] The termSabians derives from the mysterious religious group mentioned three times in theQuran. The name of this unidentified group, which is implied in the Quran to belong to the "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitāb), was historically claimed by the Mandaeans as well as by several other religious groups in order to pay legal protection (dhimma) as offered byIslamic law.[24] Occasionally, Mandaeans are also called "Christians of Saint John", in the belief that they were a direct survival of the Baptist's disciples. Further research, however, indicates this to be a misnomer, as Mandaeans considerJesus to be afalse prophet.[25][26]
The core doctrine of the faith is known asNāṣerutā (also spelledNașirutha and meaning Nasoraean gnosis or divine wisdom)[27][19]: 31 (Nasoraeanism or Nazorenism) with the adherents callednāṣorāyi (Nasoraeans or Nazorenes). These Nasoraeans are divided intotarmidutā (priesthood) andmandāyutā (laity), the latter derived from their term for knowledgemanda.[28]: ix [29] Knowledge (manda) is also the source for the term Mandaeism which encompasses their entire culture, rituals, beliefs and faith associated with the doctrine ofNāṣerutā. Followers of Mandaeism are called Mandaeans, but can also be called Nasoraeans (Nazorenes), Gnostics (utilizing the Greek wordgnosis for knowledge) or Sabians.[28]: ix [29]
The religion has primarily been practiced around the lowerKarun,Euphrates andTigris, and the rivers that surround theShatt al-Arab waterway, part of southern Iraq andKhuzestan province in Iran. As of 2007[update], there are believed to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide.[6] Until theIraq War, almost all of them lived in Iraq.[30] Many Mandaean Iraqis have since fled their country because of the turmoil created by the2003 invasion of Iraq andsubsequent occupation by U.S. armed forces, and the related rise in sectarian violence by extremists.[31] By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.[30]
The Mandaeans have remained separate and intensely private. Reports of them and of their religion have come primarily from outsiders: particularly fromJulius Heinrich Petermann, anOrientalist;[32] as well as fromNicolas Siouffi, a Syrian Christian who was the French vice-consul in Mosul in 1887,[33][34] and British cultural anthropologist LadyE. S. Drower. There is an early if highly prejudiced account by the French travellerJean-Baptiste Tavernier[35] from the 1650s.
The English spellingMandaeism is ahypercorrection ofMandaism,[8][9][10][11][12][c] which is built onmanda using the suffix-ism.
The wordMandaean in turn derives fromMandaicMandaiia,[36]lit. 'Mandaean' (inNeo-Mandaic:Mandāʾí[36] orMandāyí,[36] pluralMandayānā),[36] which also derives from the wordmanda. On the basis of cognates in other Aramaic dialects,semiticists such asMark Lidzbarski andRudolf Macúch have translated the termmanda as "knowledge" (cf.Imperial Aramaic:מַנְדַּעmandaʿ in Daniel 2:21, 4:31, 33, 5:12;cf.Hebrew:מַדַּעmadda', with characteristic assimilation of /n/ to the following consonant, medial -nd- hence becoming -dd-).[37] This etymology suggests that the Mandaeans may well be the only sect surviving fromlate antiquity to identify themselves explicitly asGnostics.[38]
According to the Mandaean text which recounts their early history, theHaran Gawaita (the Scroll of Great Revelation) which was authored between the 4th–6th centuries, theNasoraean Mandaeans who were disciples ofJohn the Baptist, leftJerusalem and migrated toMedia in the first century CE, reportedly due to persecution.[39][40]: vi, ix The emigrants first went toHaran (possiblyHarran in modern-day Turkey) orHauran, and then to theMedian hills inIran before finally settling in southern Mesopotamia (modern dayIraq).[5] According toRichard Horsley, 'inner Hawran' is most likelyWadi Hauran in present-daySyria which theNabataeans controlled. Earlier, the Nabataeans were at war withHerod Antipas, who had been sharply condemned by the prophet John, eventually executing him, and were thus positively predisposed toward a group loyal to John.[41]
Many scholars who specialize in Mandaeism, includingJorunn Jacobsen Buckley, agree with the historical account.[42][5][43] Others, however, argue for a southwestern Mesopotamian origin of the group.[39]Some scholars take the view that Mandaeism is older and dates back to pre-Christian times.[44] Mandaeans claim that their religion predates Judaism, Christianity and Islam,[45] and believe that they are the direct descendants ofShem,Noah's son.[46]: 186 They also believe that they are the direct descendants of John the Baptist's originalNasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.[40]: vi, ix
DuringParthian rule, Mandaeans flourished under royal protection. This protection, however, did not last with theSasanian emperorBahram I ascending to the throne and his high priestKartir, who persecuted all non-Zoroastrians.[5]: 4
At the beginning of theMuslim conquest of Mesopotamia inc. 640, the leader of the Mandaeans,Anush bar Danqa, is said to have appeared before theMuslim authorities, showing them a copy of theGinza Rabba, the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to beJohn the Baptist, who is also mentioned in theQuran asYahya ibn Zakariya. This identified Mandaeans as among theahl al-kitāb (People of the Book). Hence, Mandaeism was recognized as a legal minority religion within the Muslim Empire.[47] However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush bar Danqa traveled toBaghdad, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.[48]
Nevertheless, at some point the Mandaeans were identified as theSabians mentioned along with theJews, theChristians and theZoroastrians in the Quran asPeople of the Book.[49] The earliest source to unambiguously do so wasḤasan bar Bahlul (fl. 950–1000) citing the Abbasid vizieribn Muqla (c. 885–940),[50] though it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.[51] Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.[47]
Around 1290, the Catholic Dominican friarRiccoldo da Monte di Croce, was in Mesopotamia where he met the Mandaeans and is possibly the first European source on the religion. He described them as believing in a secret law ofGod recorded in alluring texts, despising circumcision, venerating John the Baptist above all and washing repeatedly to avoid condemnation by God.[52]
Mandaeans were called "Christians of Saint John" by members of theDiscalced Carmelite mission inBasra during the 16th and 17th centuries, based on reports from missionaries such asIgnatius of Jesus.[25] Some Portuguese Jesuits had also met some "Saint John Christians" around theStrait of Hormuz in 1559, when the Portuguese fleet fought with theOttoman army inBahrain.[53]
Mandaeism, as the religion of the Mandaean people, is based on a set of religious creeds and doctrines. The corpus of Mandaean literature is quite large and covers topics such aseschatology, the knowledge of God, and the afterlife.[54]
According toBrikha Nasoraia:
The Mandaeans see themselves as healers of the "Worlds and Generations"(Almia u-Daria), and practitioners of the religion of Mind(Mana), Light(Nhura), Truth(Kušța), Love(Rahma/Ruhma) and Enlightenment or Knowledge(Manda).[19]: 28
According toE. S. Drower, the MandaeanGnosis is characterized by nine features, which appear in various forms in other gnostic sects:[27]
The religion extolls an intricate, multifaceted, esoteric, mythological, ritualistic, and exegetical tradition, with the emanation model of creation being the predominant interpretation.[56]
The most common name for God in Mandaeism isHayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').[57] Othernames used areMare d'Rabuta ('Lord of Greatness'),Mana Rabba ('The Great Mind'),Malka d-Nhura ('King of Light') andHayyi Qadmaiyi ('The First Life').[46][58] Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.[59]
There are numerousuthras (angels or guardians),[60] manifested from the light, that surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. Prominent amongst them includeManda d-Hayyi, who bringsmanda (knowledge orgnosis) to Earth,[1][page needed] andHibil Ziwa, who conquers theWorld of Darkness.[18]: 206–213 Some uthras are commonly referred to asemanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e.Yushamin,Abatur, andPtahil).[61][60]
Ptahil (ࡐࡕࡀࡄࡉࡋ), the 'Fourth Life', alone does not constitute thedemiurge but only fills that role insofar as he is seen as the creator of the material world with the help of the evil spiritRuha. Ruha is viewed negatively as the personification of the lower, emotional, and feminine elements of the human psyche.[62] Therefore, the material world is a mixture of 'light' and 'dark'.[46][1][page needed] Ptahil is the lowest of a group of three emanations, the other two beingYushamin (ࡉࡅࡔࡀࡌࡉࡍ, the 'Second Life' (also spelled Joshamin)) andAbatur (ࡀࡁࡀࡕࡅࡓ), the 'Third Life'. Abatur's demiurgic role consists of weighing the souls of the dead to determine their fate. The role of Yushamin, the first emanation, is more obscure; wanting to create a world of his own, he was punished for opposing the King of Light ('The First Life') but was ultimately forgiven.[63][28]
As is also the case among theEssenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile.[46]: 94
Mandaeans recognize several prophets.John the Baptist, known in Mandaic asYuhana Maṣbana (ࡉࡅࡄࡀࡍࡀ ࡌࡀࡑࡁࡀࡍࡀ)[64] orYuhana bar Zakria (John, son of Zechariah),[65] is accorded a special status, higher than his role in either Christianity or Islam. Mandaeans do not regard John as the founder of their religion. Still, they revere him as their greatest teacher, who renews and reforms their ancient faith,[5]: 101 [66] tracing their beliefs back toAdam. John is believed to be a messenger of Light (nhura) and Truth (kushta) who possessed the power of healing and fullGnosis (manda).[19]: 48
Mandaeism does not regardAbraham,Moses, orJesus as Mandaean prophets. However, it teaches the belief that Abraham and Jesus were originally Mandaean priests.[40][5][67] They recognize other prophetic figures from theAbrahamic religions, such asAdam, his sonsHibil (Abel) andShitil (Seth), and his grandsonAnush (Enosh), as well as Nuh (Noah),Sam (Shem), and Ram (Aram), whom they consider to be their direct ancestors. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem, and John the Baptist to be prophets, with Adam the founder and John the greatest and final prophet.[19]: 45 [20]
The Mandaeans have a large corpus of religious scriptures, the most important of which is theGinza Rabba orGinza, a collection of history, theology, and prayers.[68] TheGinza Rabba is divided into two halves—theGenzā Smālā orLeft Ginza, and theGenzā Yeminā orRight Ginza. By consulting thecolophons in theLeft Ginza,Jorunn J. Buckley has identified an uninterrupted chain of copyists to the late second or early third century.[69] The colophons attest to the existence of the Mandaeans during the lateParthian Empire.
The oldest texts arelead amulets from about the third century CE, followed byincantation bowls from about 600 CE. The important religious texts survived in manuscripts not older than the sixteenth century, with most coming from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[70]
Mandaean religious texts may have been originallyorally transmitted before being written down by scribes, making dating and authorship difficult.[46]: 20
Another important text is theHaran Gawaita, which tells the history of the Mandaeans. According to this text, a group ofNasoraeans (Mandean priests) leftJudea before thedestruction of Jerusalem in the first century CE and settled within theParthian Empire.[5]
Other important books include theQulasta, the canonical prayerbook of the Mandaeans, which was translated byE. S. Drower.[71] One of the chief works of Mandaean scripture, accessible to laymen and initiates alike, is theMandaean Book of John, which includes a dialogue between John and Jesus. In addition to theGinza,Qulasta, andDraša d-Yahya, there is theDiwan Abatur, which contains a description of the 'regions' the soul ascends through, and theBook of the Zodiac (Asfar Malwāshē). Finally, some pre-Muslim artifacts contain Mandaean writings and inscriptions, such as someAramaic incantation bowls.
Mandaean ritual commentaries (esoteric exegetical literature), which are typically written in scrolls rather thancodices, include:[1][page needed]
The language in which the Mandaean religious literature was originally composed is known asMandaic, a member of theAramaic group of dialects. It is written in theMandaic script, a cursive variant of the Parthian chancellery script. Many Mandaean laypeople do not speak this language, although some members of the Mandaean community resident in Iran and Iraq continue to speak Neo-Mandaic, a modern version of this language.
If you see anyone hungry, feed him; if you see anyone thirsty, give him a drink.
— Right Ginza I.105
Give alms to the poor. When you give do not attest it. If you give with your right hand do not tell your left hand. If you give with your left hand do not tell your right hand.
Ye the chosen ones ... Do not wear iron and weapons; let your weapons be knowledge and faith in the God of the World of Light. Do not commit the crime of killing any human being.
Ye the chosen ones ... Do not rely on kings and rulers of this world, do not use soldiers and weapons or wars; do not rely on gold or silver, for they all will forsake your soul. Your souls will be nurtured by patience, love, goodness and love for Life.
— Right Ginza II.i.34[72]
The two most important ceremonies in Mandaean worship arebaptism (Masbuta) and 'the ascent' (Masiqta – a mass for the dead or ascent of the soul ceremony). Unlike in Christianity, baptism is not a one-off event but is performed every Sunday, the Mandaean holy day, as a ritual of purification. Baptism usually involves full immersion in flowing water, and all rivers considered fit for baptism are called Yardena (after theRiver Jordan). After emerging from the water, the worshipper is anointed with holysesame oil and partakes in a communion of sacramental bread and water. The ascent of the soul ceremony, called themasiqta, can take various forms, but usually involves a ritual meal in memory of the dead. The ceremony is believed to help the souls of the departed on their journey through purgatory to theWorld of Light.[73][46]
Other rituals for purification include theRishama and theTamasha which, unlikeMasbuta, can be performed without a priest.[46] TheRishama (signing) is performed before prayers and involves washing the face and limbs while reciting specific prayers. It is performed daily, before sunrise, with hair covered and afterdefecation or before religious ceremonies,[55] similar to Islamicwudu. TheTamasha is a triple immersion in the river without a requirement for a priest. It is performed by women after menstruation or childbirth, men and women after sexual activity or nocturnal emission, touching acorpse or any other type of defilement,[55] similar to Jewishtevilah. Ritual purification also applies to fruits, vegetables, pots, pans, utensils, animals for consumption and ceremonial garments (rasta).[55] Purification for a dying person is also performed. It includes bathing involving a threefold sprinkling of river water over the person from head to feet.[55]
A Mandaean's grave must be in the north–south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north.[46]: 184 Similarly,Essene graves are also oriented north–south.[74] Mandaeans must face north during prayers, which are performed three times a day.[75][76][46] Daily prayer in Mandaeism is calledbrakha.
Zidqa (almsgiving) is also practiced in Mandaeism, with Mandaean laypeople regularly offering alms to priests.
Amandī (Arabic:مندى) (beth manda) ormashkhanna[77] is a place of worship for followers of Mandaeism. Amandī must be built beside a river in order to performmaṣbuta (baptism) because water is an essential element in the Mandaean faith. Modernmandīs sometimes have a bath inside a building instead. Each mandi is adorned with adrabsha, which is a banner in the shape of a cross, made of olive wood half covered with a piece of white pure silk cloth and seven branches ofmyrtle. Thedrabsha is not identified with the Christian cross. Instead, the four arms of thedrabsha symbolize the four corners of the universe, while the pure silk cloth represents the Light of God.[78] The seven branches ofmyrtle represent the seven days of creation.[79][80]
Mandaeans believe in marriage (qabin) and procreation, placing a high priority upon family life and in the importance of leading an ethical and moral lifestyle.Polygyny is accepted, though it is uncommon.[81][82] They arepacifist andegalitarian, with the earliest attested Mandaean scribe being a woman,Shlama Beth Qidra, who copied theLeft Ginza sometime in the second century CE.[17] There is evidence for women priests, especially in the pre-Islamic era.[83] They believe the creator created the human body complete, so no part of it should be removed or cut off, hencecircumcision is considered bodily mutilation for Mandaeans and therefore forbidden.[55][46] Mandaeans abstain from strong drink and mostred meat, however meat consumed by Mandaeans must be slaughtered according to the proper rituals. The approach to the slaughter of animals for consumption is always apologetic.[55] On some days, they refrain from eating meat.[84][page needed] Fasting in Mandaeism is calledsauma. Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian.[85]
There is a strict division between Mandaean laity and the priests. According toE. S. Drower (The Secret Adam, p. ix):
[T]hose amongst the community who possess secret knowledge are calledNaṣuraiia—Naṣoraeans (or, if the emphatic ‹ṣ› is written as ‹z›,Nazorenes). At the same time the ignorant or semi-ignorant laity are called 'Mandaeans',Mandaiia—'gnostics.' When a man becomes a priest he leaves 'Mandaeanism' and enterstarmiduta, 'priesthood.' Even then he has not attained to true enlightenment, for this, called 'Naṣiruta', is reserved for a very few. Those possessed of its secrets may call themselves Naṣoraeans, and 'Naṣoraean' today indicates not only one who observes strictly all rules of ritual purity, but one who understands the secret doctrine.[86]
There are three grades of priesthood in Mandaeism: thetarmidia (ࡕࡀࡓࡌࡉࡃࡉࡀ) "disciples" (Neo-Mandaictarmidānā), theganzibria (ࡂࡀࡍࡆࡉࡁࡓࡉࡀ) "treasurers" (from Old Persianganza-bara "id.", Neo-Mandaicganzeḇrānā) and therišama (ࡓࡉࡔࡀࡌࡀ) "leader of the people".Ganzeḇrā, a title which appears first in a religious context in the Aramaic ritual texts fromPersepolis (c. third century BCE), and which may be related to thekamnaskires (Elamite <qa-ap-nu-iš-ki-ra>kapnuskir "treasurer"), title of the rulers ofElymais (modernKhuzestan) during the Hellenistic age. Traditionally, anyganzeḇrā who baptizes seven or moreganzeḇrānā may qualify for the office ofrišama. The currentrišama of the Mandaean community in Iraq isSattar Jabbar Hilo al-Zahrony. In Australia, the Mandaeanrišama isSalah Chohaili.[2][87][88]
The contemporary priesthood can trace its immediate origins to the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1831, an outbreak ofcholera inShushtar,Iran devastated the region and eliminated most, if not all, of the Mandaean religious authorities there. Two of the surviving acolytes (šgandia),Yahia Bihram andRam Zihrun, reestablished the priesthood inSuq al-Shuyukh on the basis of their own training and the texts that were available to them.[89]
In 2009, there were two dozen Mandaean priests in the world.[90] However, according to the Mandaean Society in America, the number of priests has been growing in recent years.
.jpg)
According toEdmondo Lupieri, as stated in his article inEncyclopædia Iranica, "The possible historical connection withJohn the Baptist, as seen in the newly translated Mandaean texts, convinced many (notablyR. Bultmann) that it was possible, through the Mandaean traditions, to shed some new light on the history of John and on theorigins of Christianity. This brought around a revival of the otherwise almost fully abandoned idea of their origins in Israel. As the archeological discovery of Mandaeanincantation bowls andlead amulets proved a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in the southern Mesopotamia, scholars were obliged to hypothesize otherwise unknown persecutions by Jews or by Christians to explain the reason for Mandaeans' departure from Israel." Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims thatZazai d-Gawazta to be the founder of Mandaeism in the second century. Jorunn J. Buckley refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied theGinza Rabba.[69][43] In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Israelite origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian.[91]Edwin Yamauchi believes Mandaeism's origin lies in theTransjordan, where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the second century CE.[92][93] Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than fifth century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized byJames F. McGrath.[94]
Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the Jordan valley of Israel, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.[95]: 55
Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such asKurt Rudolph,Mark Lidzbarski,Rudolf Macúch,Ethel S. Drower,Eric Segelberg,James F. McGrath,Charles G. Häberl,Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, andŞinasi Gündüz argue for an Israelite origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.[96][97][68][98] Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing inMandaic, findsJewish Aramaic,Samaritan Aramaic,Hebrew,Greek andLatin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Israelite history with Jews".[99][100] In addition, scholars such asRichard August Reitzenstein,Rudolf Bultmann,G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves,Gilles Quispel, and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine orJordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans.[101][102][103][104][105][106] James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.[107][108]Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"[109] and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."[110]Barbara Thiering questions the dating of theDead Sea Scrolls and suggests that theTeacher of Righteousness (leader of theEssenes) was John the Baptist.[111] Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins[5]: 97 and adds:
[T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of – or at least contributors to the development of – Gnosticism ... and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language ... influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Manichaeism, Valentianism].[5]: 109
During the 9th and 10th centuries several religious groups came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with theSabaeans ofSouth Arabia) mentioned alongside the Jews, the Christians, and theZoroastrians in theQuran. It is implied in the Quran that the Sabians belonged to the 'People of the Book' (ahl al-kitāb).[112] The religious groups who purported to be the Sabians mentioned in the Quran included the Mandaeans, but also variouspagan groups inHarran (Upper Mesopotamia) and themarshlands of southern Iraq. They claimed the name in order to be recognized by the Muslim authorities as a people of the book deserving of legal protection (dhimma).[49] The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans wasal-Hasan ibn Bahlul (fl. 950–1000) citing the Abbasid vizierAbu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (c. 885–940).[50] However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.[51]
Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans,[113] although many other possible identifications have been proposed.[114] Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty.[115] Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.[116]
TheHaran Gawaita uses the nameNasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.[117] Scholars such asKurt Rudolph,Rudolf Macúch,Mark Lidzbarski andEthel S. Drower andJames F. McGrath connect the Mandaeans with theNasaraeans described byEpiphanius, a group within theEssenes according toJoseph Lightfoot.[118][119][98] Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.[120][121]
The Nasaraeans – they were Jews by nationality – originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledgedMoses and believed that he had received laws – not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that theseBooks are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraeans and the others.
— Epiphanius's Panarion 1:18
The Elkesaites were a Judeo-Christian baptismal sect that originated in the Transjordan and were active between 100 and 400 CE.[122] The members of this sect, like the Mandaeans, performed frequent baptisms for purification and had a Gnostic disposition.[122][46]: 123 The sect is named after its leaderElkesai.[123]
The Church FatherEpiphanius (writing in the fourth century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes:[124] "Of those that came before his [Elxai (Elkesai), an Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the Ossaeans and theNasaraeans."[125]
Epiphanius describes the Ossaeans as following:
After this Nasaraean sect in turn comes another closely connected with them, called the Ossaeans. These are Jews like the former ... originally came from Nabataea, Ituraea, Moabitis, and Arielis, the lands beyond the basin of what sacred scripture called the 'Salt Sea'. This is the one which is called the 'Dead Sea' ... The man called Elxai joined them later, in the reign of the emperor Trajan after the Saviour's incarnation, and he was a false prophet. He wrote a book, supposedly by prophecy or as though by inspired wisdom. They also say that there was another person, Iexaeus, Elxai's brother ... As has been said earlier, Elxai was connected with the sect I have mentioned, the one called the Ossaean. Even today there are still remnants of it in Nabataea, which is also called Peraea near Moabitis; this people is now known as the Sampsaean ... For he [Elxai] forbids prayer facing east. He claims that one should not face this direction, but should face Jerusalem from all quarters. Some must face Jerusalem from east to west, some from west to east, some from north to south and south to north, so that Jerusalem is faced from every direction ... Though it is different from the other six of these seven sects, it causes schism only by forbidding the books of Moses like the Nasaraean.
— Epiphanius's Panarion 1:19
Ossaeans have abandoned Judaism for the sect of the Sampsaeans, who are no longer either Jews or Christians.
— Epiphanius's Panarion 1:20
TheEssenes were amysticJewishsect during theSecond Temple period that flourished from the second century BCE to the first century CE.[126]
Early Mandaean religious concepts and terminologies recur in theDead Sea Scrolls, andYardena(Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.[127]Mara d-Rabuta (Mandaic: "Lord of Greatness", one of the names forHayyi Rabbi) is found in theGenesis Apocryphon II, 4.[128] An early Mandaean self-appellation isbhiria zidqa, meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in theBook of Enoch andGenesis Apocryphon II, 4.[129][117][130]: 52 As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation ofbnia nhura, meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes.[19]: 50 [131] Mandaean scripture affirms that the Mandaeans descend directly fromJohn the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem and there are numerous similarities between John's movement and the Essenes.[40]: vi, ix [132] Similar to the Essenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile.[46]: 94 Essene graves are oriented north–south[74] and a Mandaean's grave must also be in the north–south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north.[46]: 184 Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian[85] and also similar to the Essenes, they arepacifists.[133]: 47 [30]
Thebit manda (beth manda) is described asbiniana rba ḏ-šrara ("the Great building of Truth") andbit tušlima ("house of Perfection") inMandaean texts such as theQulasta,Ginza Rabba, and theMandaean Book of John. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts fromQumran such as theCommunity Rule, which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (Community Rule 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."[134]
Bana'im were a minor Jewish sect and an offshoot of theEssenes during the second century in Israel.[135][136]The Bana'im put heavy emphasis on the cleanliness of clothing since they believed that garments cannot even have a small mudstain before dipping in purifying water. There exists considerable debate around their activities in Israel and the meaning of the name, some believe that they would put heavy emphasis on the study of the creation of the world, while some believe that the Bana'im were an Essene order employed with the ax and shovel. Other scholars instead have suggested that the name of the Bana'im is derived from the Greek word for "bath". In this case the sect would be similar to theHemerobaptists orTovelei Shaḥarit.[137][better source needed]
Hemerobaptists (Heb.Tovelei Shaḥarit; 'Morning Bathers') were an ancient religious sect that practiced daily baptism. They were likely a division of the Essenes.[137]In theClementine Homilies (ii. 23), John the Baptist and his disciples are mentioned as Hemerobaptists. The Mandaeans have been associated with the Hemerobaptists on account of both practicing frequent baptism and Mandaeans believing they are disciples of John.[138][40][139]
Maghāriya were a minor Jewish sect that appeared in the first century BCE, their special practice was the keeping of all their literature in caves in the surrounding hills of Israel. They made their own commentaries on the Bible and the law. The Maghāriya believed that God is too sublime to mingle with matter, thus they did not believe that God directly created the world, but that an angel, which represents God created the earth which is similar to the Mandaean demiurgicPtahil. Some scholars have identified the Maghāriya with the Essenes or theTherapeutae.[137][136][140]
Nathaniel Deutsch writes:
Initially, these interactions [between Mandaeans andJewish mystics in Babylonia from Late Antiquity to the medieval period] resulted in shared magical and angelogical traditions. During this phase the parallels which exist between Mandaeism andHekhalot mysticism would have developed. At some point, both Mandaeans and Jews living in Babylonia began to develop similar cosmogonic and theosophic traditions involving an analogous set of terms, concepts, and images. At present it is impossible to say whether these parallels resulted primarily from Jewish influence on Mandaeans, Mandaean influence on Jews, or from cross fertilization. Whatever their original source, these traditions eventually made their way into the priestly – that is, esoteric – Mandaean texts ... and into the Kabbalah.[141]: 222
R.J. Zwi Werblowsky suggests Mandaeism has more commonality with Kabbalah than withMerkabah mysticism such as cosmogony and sexual imagery.The Thousand and Twelve Questions,Scroll of Exalted Kingship, andAlma Rišaia Rba link the alphabet with the creation of the world, a concept found inSefer Yetzirah and theBahir.[141]: 217 Mandaean names foruthras have been found in Jewish magical texts.Abatur appears to be inscribed inside a Jewish magic bowl in a corrupted form as "Abiṭur".Ptahil is found inSefer HaRazim listed among other angels who stand on the ninth step of the second firmament.[142]: 210–211
According to theFihrist ofibn al-Nadim, the Mesopotamian prophetMani, the founder ofManichaeism, was brought up within theElkesaite (Elcesaite orElchasaite) sect, this being confirmed more recently by theCologne Mani Codex. None of theManichaean scriptures has survived in its entirety, and it seems that the remaining fragments have not been compared to theGinza Rabba. Mani later left the Elkasaites to found his own religion. In a comparative analysis, the Swedish EgyptologistTorgny Säve-Söderbergh indicated that Mani'sPsalms of Thomas was closely related to Mandaean texts.[143] According toE. S. Drower, "some of the most ancient Manichaean psalms, the Coptic Psalms of Thomas, were paraphrases and even word-for-word translations of Mandaic originals; prosody and phrase offering proof that the Manichaean was the borrower and not vice-versa."[40]: IX
An extensive discussion of the relationships between Mandaeism and Manichaeism can be found in Băncilă (2018).[144]
According to Magris, Samaritan Baptist sects were an offshoot ofJohn the Baptist.[145] One offshoot was in turn headed byDositheus,Simon Magus, andMenander. It was in this milieu that the idea emerged that the world was created by ignorant angels. Their baptismal ritual removed the consequences of sin, and led to a regeneration by which natural death, which was caused by these angels, was overcome.[145] The Samaritan leaders were viewed as "the embodiment of God's power, spirit, or wisdom, and as the redeemer and revealer of 'true knowledge'".[145]
TheSimonians were centered on Simon Magus, the magician baptised by Philip and rebuked by Peter in Acts 8, who became in early Christianity the archetypal false teacher. The ascription by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and others of a connection between schools in their time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books. Justin Martyr identifies Menander of Antioch as Simon Magus' pupil. According to Hippolytus, Simonianism is an earlier form ofValentinianism.[146]
Kurt Rudolph has observed many parallels between Mandaean texts andSethian Gnostic texts from theNag Hammadi library.[147]Birger A. Pearson also compares the "Five Seals" of Sethianism, which he believes is a reference to quintuple ritual immersion in water, to Mandaeanmasbuta.[148] According toBuckley (2010), "Sethian Gnostic literature ... is related, perhaps as a younger sibling, to Mandaean baptism ideology."[149]
A Mandaean baptismal formula was adopted by Valentinian Gnostics in Rome and Alexandria in the second century CE.[5]: 109
A Yezidologist, Artur Rodziewicz, in his analysis of Yezidi cosmogony, demonstrated its affinities with Mandaean accounts of the creation of the world, particularly in the version known from theMandaean Book of John. These parallels include conceptions relating to the central Yezidi deity referred to as the Peacock Angel (Tawûsî Melek).[22]
%2c_Maysan%2c_Iraq_-_Mar_17%2c_2019_13.jpg)
It is estimated that there are between 60,000 and 100,000Mandaeans worldwide.[80] Their proportion in their native lands has collapsed because of the Iraq War, with most of the community relocating to nearby Iran, Syria, and Jordan. There are approximately 2,500 Mandaeans inJordan.[150]
In 2011,Al Arabiya put the number of hidden and unaccounted for Iranian Mandaeans in Iran as high as 60,000.[151] According to a 2009 article inThe Holland Sentinel, the Mandaean community in Iran has also been dwindling, numbering between 5,000 and, at most, 10,000 people.
Many Mandaeans have formed diaspora communities outside the Middle East inSweden,Netherlands,Germany, United States,Canada,New Zealand,UK and especiallyAustralia, where around 10,000 reside, mainly aroundSydney, representing 15% of the total world Mandaean population.[152]
Approximately 1,000 Iranian Mandaeans have emigrated to the United States, since the US State Department in 2002 granted them protective refugee status, which was also later accorded to Iraqi Mandaeans in 2007.[153] A community estimated at 2,500 members live inWorcester, Massachusetts, where they began settling in 2008. Most emigrated from Iraq.[154]
Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.[90]
Religion portalAnd sixty thousand Nasoraeans abandoned the Sign of the Seven and entered the Median Hills, a place where we were free from domination by all other races.
[Wilhelm] Brandt maintains that the oldest layer of Mandaean tradition is pre-Christian. He designates it "polytheistic material,'" which is nourished above all from "semitic nature religion" (to which he also accords baptismal and water rites) and "Chaldaean philosophy." Gnostic, Greek, Persian, and Jewish conceptions were added and assimilated to it. [...] A newer trend of Mandaean theology was first capable of bringing about a reformation by attaching itself to Persian models; this is the school of the so-called "teaching of the king of light" (Lichtkonigslehre), as Brandt has named it. [...] Both of the central principles of Mandeism, Light and Life, attached themselves to Iranian and Semitic conceptions.
When they were first discovered by Europeans in the 17th century, and it was found that they were neither Catholics nor Protestants but that they made much of baptism and honoured John the Baptist, they were called Christians of St John, in the belief that they were a direct survival of the Baptist's disciples. Further research, however, made it quite clear that they were not Christians or Jews at all, in any ordinary sense of the word. They regard 'Jesus Messiah' as a false prophet, and 'the Holy Spirit' as a female demon, and they denounce the Jews and all their ways.
 | This article'suse ofexternal links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Pleaseimprove this article by removingexcessive orinappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate intofootnote references.(February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Iraq topics | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
