Dhivehin ދިވެހިން | |
|---|---|
 Feyli (the ethnic attire of the Maldivian) was worn both by men and women in Maldives during the monarchy. | |
| Total population | |
| c. 382,639[1] (2022) | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Maldives | 344,023 (2014)[2] |
 Sri Lanka | 20,000 (2013)[3] |
 India | ~15,000[a] (2011)[4][5] |
 Malaysia | 1,500 (2008)[6] |
 Singapore | 1,000 (2008)[6] |
 United States | 733 (2020)[7] |
 Pakistan | 450 (2010)[8] |
 Australia | 680 (2021)[9] |
 Egypt | 150 (2011)[10] |
 Colombia | 90 (2019) |
 Taiwan | 3 (2023)[11] |
 Philippines | 2 (2010)[12] |
 Russia | 1 (2019)[13] |
| Languages | |
| Maldivian (Dhivehi) | |
| Religion | |
| Sunni Islam[14][15][16] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Sinhalese Sri Lankan Tamils | |
a.^ Excluding a smaller number of foreign nationals and ambassadors. | |
Maldivians (Dhivehi pronunciation:[diˈʋehiŋ];Dhivehi:ދިވެހިން,romanized: dhivehin) are anIndo-Aryanethnic group andnation native to the historic region of theMaldive Islands, present dayRepublic of Maldives and the island ofMinicoy inUnion Territory of Lakshadweep, India. Maldivians share one culture and speak theDhivehi language, which is a member of the southern group ofIndo-Aryan languages.[17] For ethnographic and linguistic purposes as well as geopolitical reasons, anthropologists divide the Maldivian people into three subgroups.[18]
The main group numbers more than 250,000. This group inhabits the numerous atolls stretching fromIhavandhippolhu (Haa Alif) toHaddhunmathi (Laamu) in the Maldives. They constitute over 70% of the total. On a larger scale, the third group also comes under this group. From this group comes the standard dialect of the Maldivian language which is spoken in the Maldive's capital,Malé, along with the central atolls. Variants are spoken in the rest of the islands, from the far north to Laamu Atoll.[18]
The southern group is found in the three southernmost atolls of the equatorial zone (Huvadhu,Fuvahmulah andAdduatolls). This group numbers approximately 60,000 and constitutes about 20% of the total. The earliest known settlements were in this region. This group of Maldivians has the closest proximity to the original Maldivian people in terms of language and ethnicity.[18] Each of the 3 atolls has its own distinctive form of the Maldivian language (Huvadhu dialect,Mulaku dialect,Addu dialect), which are significantly different from other dialects and have greater affinity to the original.[19]
The people of Minicoy (Malikun) –Mahls, number about 10,000. Minicoy island lies at the northern end of the Maldivian atoll chain and is the northernmost group. They make up 3% of the total. Ethnically and linguistically they are identical to the main group. They are distinguished instead by their politics and their latter day affiliation with India. The Minicoians are steadily undergoing a process of acculturation. This group has its own dialect (calledMaliku dialect or Mahl) which retains some features of an older Maldivian, and showsMalayalam influences. The dialect is mutually intelligible with main group Maldivian.[18]
No historical evidence explains the origin of Maldivians; no evidence describes anynegrito or other aboriginal population, such as theAndamanese. No archaeology has investigated the islands' prehistory. However, aTamil–Malayalam substratum remains, in addition to later cultural influences in the islands.[20]Bengali,Odia, andSinhalese people have had trading connections with Dhivehi people in the past.
Scholars conjecture that the ancestors of Maldivian people arrived in theMaldives fromNorth West andWest India, fromKalibangan between 2500 and 1700 BC[21][failed verification] and that they formed a distinct ethnic group around the 6th century BC.
Maldivian folklore describes the dependence of the Maldivians on thecoconut tree and thetuna fish.[22] One legend says that the first inhabitants died in great numbers, but a great sorcerer orfandita madecoconut trees grow out of the skulls of the buried corpses of the first settlers. Therefore, the coconut tree is said to have an anthropomorphic origin. The word naashi (coconut shell) is the word for skull in the Dhivehi language.[23] The coconut tree occupies a central place in the present-dayMaldive national emblem.
Thetuna fish is said to have been brought to Maldivian waters by a mythical seafarer (maalimi) called Bodu Niyami Kalēfanu who went close to the Dagas (themythical tree at the end of the world) to bring this fish.[23]
One of the earliest people to settle were from theMalabar Coast ofIndia and northwestern shores ofSri Lanka, and are ofTamil andMalayali ancestry, evidenced by theTamil–Malayalam substratum in language and culture.[citation needed] TheGiraavaru people are considered one of the earliest settlers. They were technologically advanced, building sail boats (dhonis).[24]
These people used words such asvaram for their islands. Examples given in the old manuscript are:Noḷivaram,Kuruhinnavaram, andGirāvaram. Many of the old terms used by Maldivian fishermen come fromDravidian languages, leading to the assumption that these terms were brought from southern coastal India. Historical records show that in the southern and central atolls, occupations such as farming and weaving became important early on.[citation needed]
After theIndo-Aryans' arrival and the introduction of theHindu religion, a prince of India is said to have visited the Maldives. The period can be estimated from oral tradition, and the story corresponds to that from Sri Lanka'sMahavamsa chronicle, about the king's son exiled from his country who arrived in Lanka, while one of his ships lost its way and arrived in the Maldives.[citation needed] In legend, the prince who arrived in the Maldives was the son ofBrahmaditiya, king ofKalinga (Brahmadatta was King at the time ofBuddha's death c. 500 – 350 BC), a kingdom in the south-east of India (modernOrissa). King Brahmaditiya was displeased with his son and sent him to Dheeva Maari (Maldives). The prince wasSri Soorudasaruna. Sri Soorudasaruna established a kingdom of the Adeetha Vansha Dynasty (Solar Dynasty) there, shortly before the reign ofEmperor Ashoka in India. This places the establishment of the first kingdom in the Maldives circa the 4th century BC. Tradition states thatEmperor Ashoka established his kingdom inPataliputra and that his people preached the religion and teachings of Buddha toBairat, west of Pataliputra. People came from Bairat to teach Buddhism. These people are said to have arrived during Ashoka's reign, probably when he sent Buddhist missionaries to all neighbouring countries, in the 3rd century BC. When the Buddhist missionaries arrived in the Maldives, the place was called Dheeva Mahl. Around the 2nd century AD, Arab traders stopped by the Maldives en route to the Far East – their first record of the Maldives islands, which they called Mahal Dibiyat, is from these traders. The Maldives provided enormous quantities ofcowrie shells, an international currency at the time. The cowrie became the symbol of the Maldives Monetary Authority. Abu al-Barakat Yusuf al-Barbari, a North African Arab, is credited with converting the Maldivians toIslam in 1153.[citation needed]
The ruling dynasty was established by prince Koimala. In theLōmāfānu andRādavaḷi chronicles pre-Muslim royalty are represented by a king, whose successor was converted to Islam. The name Koimala Kalo is suggestive:koi orkoyi inMaldivian language means son, lad or prince (derived fromMalayalamkoya, son, prince, master, cf. the Dravidian rootkō, king). Themalā component may be derived frommāla as in Māla-dīv, but, if so, the name would mean 'prince of the Maldives'. The termkalō is a common word for man, used as a term of endearment. The title of former Maldivian kings waskattiri bovana mahaa radun, 'Kattiri' (ކައްތިރި) meaningKshatriya in Maldivian.
One oral tradition says that theGiraavaru people are the indigenous people of the Maldives and were present before Koimala arrived.[citation needed] They are ofTamil origin; their presence predates Buddhism and the arrival of Indo-Aryans.[24] This may be the reason that the Dhivehi kinship system is part of the Dravidian origin, and bears evidence of somematriliny, like theNayar and other matrilineal groups ofKerala. Some kinship terms are derived fromMalayalam.
Five versions of the myth survive:[20]
At a time when the Maldives were still sparsely inhabited, Prince Koimala, who had married the daughter of the king of Ceylon, made a voyage with her in two vessels from Srendib (Sri Lanka). Reaching the Maldives they were becalmed and rested atRasgetheemu island in North Maalhosmadulu Atoll.
The islanders, learning that the two chief visitors were Ceylon royals, invited them to remain; they ultimately proclaimed Koimala their king at Rasgetheemu, the original 'King's Island'.
Koimala and his spouse migrated to Malé and settled there with the consent of the inhabitants, then the most important community of Malé Atoll.
The two ships were dispatched to Lanka, and brought over other people of 'the Lion Race' (Sinhalese).
Koimala and his queen spawned a male child called Kalaminja. He reigned as a Buddhist for twelve years and then converted to Islam, ruling for thirteen years more before migrating toMecca.
This ruler's daughter married the chief minister and reigned as a nominal Sultana. She gave birth to a son called Kalaminja, who, in turn, married a lady of the country.
This legend was recorded by Bell in 1922.
The Indian king was angry with his son, and sent him with and his wife in two boats with 700 soldiers. They came to Rasgetheemu in Raa Atoll. When he became king there, people called that island Rasgetheemu "King's Landing". The king and queen then came to Malé, and Koimala was born to them. Maloney reported this from Malé.
"... When Koimala and his wife came, there were already people here. Because she was a princess of royal lineage, people asked her husband to rule. Koimala sent ships to Sri Lanka and brought back more people. It is said that a beautiful woman named Malakamana from the Maldives was one of the early people who settled Sri Lanka." Maloney reported this fromNoonu Atoll.
A hunter king of Sri Lanka was hunting and caught a man beast in his net. The man-beast couldn't walk, so the king taught him. The man-beast married the king's daughter, but he made political trouble in Sri Lanka, so was forced into exile. He and the princess arrived in Rasgetheemu and lived there for some time, where the locals there asked them to rule them. Maloney reported this from Manadhoo, Noonu Atoll.
A hunter king of India was hunting with a net. He saw a creature that looked human but walked on all fours, and that disturbed the people. This creature would steal the hunters' nets and prey, upsetting the king. The king made large weights for his net, to heavy for ordinary humans to lift, preventing the creature from stealing it. One day, the king, with the help of many men, put the net over the creature, trapping it. The king took the creature to the palace, looked after him, and taught him language. The creature helped the king by showing him treasures in the forest, and the king came to respect him.
The king had a daughter who fell in love with this creature (in an alternate version, the king forced his daughter to marry him). The king became angry and sent them into exile. Their ship came to Laam (Hadummati) Atoll (towards the south), where the pair saw a crow that cried. They thought the crow was a poor omen, and it was, therefore, undesirable to land there, so they continued to Malé. They settled in what is now Sultan Park (the site of the former palace) and started a kingdom.
After fifteen years, ajinn began to come from the ocean once a month and disturbed the people... (from here follows the story of the saint who came and dispelled thejinni and caused all the people to convert to Islam). Maloney reported this fromHulhumeedhoo,Addu Atoll.
Maloney reported that Gujarat, with its indented coastline and its proximity to the navigation routes of theMesopotamian andIndus civilisations, maintained a tradition of navigation for over 4000 years. The earliest Buddhist literature records seafaring from its ports. North Indian civilisation reached the Maldives and Sri Lanka from Gujarat. North Indian civilisation also reachedJava and other parts of Southeast Asia. The export of this civilisation acrossSouth andSoutheast Asia began about 500 B.C. During the Mauryan period and the diffusion of Buddhism, sea traffic in theBay of Bengal supplemented and, to some extent, surpassed that originating along the coasts of Western India.
ThreeJataka tales seem to refer to the Maldives, particularly that exiles from Bharukaccha went to a thousand islands (Laccadive and Maldives) where they found room, and that these were near an island named for coconuts (Kerala). This suggests seafarers from Bharukaccha and Suppara visited the Maldives, and that Gujaratis settled there in pre-Buddhist times. Other Jataka tales suggest that ships from Gujarat sailing to Southeast Asia stopped in the Maldives and that merchants in search of treasures sailed in several seas called –maala (ormaara).
The Maldives may have been settled in parallel with the arrival of Indo-Aryan speakers in Sri Lanka.
Mariners from the peninsula's northwestern coasts must have on occasion been blown over to the Maldives—unmanned canoes and rafts from Kerala appeared there – and the dangers of shipwreck were vividly described inJātakas. These might have arisen from contact with some of the thousands of the local reefs, which sailors long dreaded. Shipwrecked Gujaratis, as well as exiles, may have been early settlers there.
TheMaldive Islands comprise theRepublic of Maldives and the island ofMinicoy inUnion territory of Lakshadweep, India. The secession of Minicoy from Maldivian rule and its affiliation with India gradually led to the emergence of a Maldivian population of Indian citizens who came to be known asMahls.
More than 97% of Maldivians live in the Maldives. Maldivian communities across the world (including the people of Minicoy) originate from the Maldives. The Maldivian community consists of the main group, the Suvadivians, and the Mahls.[18]
As a result of political activities during the early 1960s, the termSuvadivian was adopted by some authors to refer to the southern group. From 1959 to 1963 a short-lived breakaway government namedUnited Suvadive Republic was formed by Southerners, from which the name originated although the name is novel. The names Suvadive and Suvadivian suggest that they stem from the ancient name for the atolls of Huvadhu, Fuvahmulah and Addu, or Suvadiva.[25]
The Suvadivians, living onHuvadhu,Fuvahmulah and Addu atolls number approximately 60,000 and constitute about 20% of Maldivians.[18] This group has the closest linguistic and ethnic proximity to the original Maldivians. Historical records suggest that this group faced less interference from the outside world. Unlike the other group, this group was not affected by Portuguese rule as it did not cross Suvadiva channel. Fewer traders and travelers visited this area.[19]
Each atoll of the Suvadiva region speaks its own distinctive forms of theMaldivian language (Huvadhu dialect,Mulaku dialect andAddu dialect), which are much different from the rest may be closer to the original.[18]
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This group of Maldivians was subject to substantial foreign interactions. Numerous incidents of interference from outsiders came from traders, travelers, and others. Portuguese rule and other factors affected the language and the ethnic mix.[19]
The Minicoy secession create a Maldivian population holding Indian citizenship. This group consists of the people of Minicoy and migrants. The only communities of ethnic Maldivians with Indian citizenship are from Minicoy, officially referred asMahls.[26] The people locally identify asMalikun.[27]
This group has its own dialect (calledMaliku dialect or Mahl) which retains features of the originalMaldivian language and Malayalam influences. The dialect is mutually intelligible with the main group and is more related to variants of northern Maldives.[19]
Most Mahls live in Minicoy. Mahls are 15.67% of the population of Lakshadweep.
Mahl communities have emerged inKozhikode,Malappuram,Ernakulam andThiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) in the southern state ofKerala. Their ancestors settled there in the 17th century when the islands ofLakshadweep came under the rule ofAli Rajahs/Arakkal Bheevi ofKannur.
Since 1957, direct transport between Minicoy and the Maldives was forbidden by the Indian government. Thus they are adopting elements of Indian culture owing to a lack of contact with the Maldivian people.[18][28]
Approximately 20,000 people of Maldivian ethnicity lived in Sri Lanka, as of 2013.
In 1899,John Stanley Gardiner visited the Maldives and collected anthropometrical data on Maldivians from many islands. Analysis of this data byWynfrid Duckworth, suggested three major waves of immigration into the country. These are:[29]
In 1997, a Maldivian NGO, the Society for Health Education, conducted a study onthalassaemia mutations in the Maldives. This study reported a mutation that probably originated in theMiddle East, another that could have been derived from Portuguese or Algerians, and another that probably originated fromSouth Asia and Malays. The observations are consistent with historical records, showing that travellers from India, Indonesia, North Africa, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf areas settled in the Maldives.[31] Thalassaemia is the most common genetically transmitted blood disease in the Maldives, and the study results suggest that many Maldivians had ancestors in the above-mentioned countries.[30]
Anthropological, ethnographic, and linguistic studies suggest that Maldivians share genes principally with theSinhalese of Sri Lanka as well as western Indian populations, such asMarathis,Konkanis andGujaratis with traces ofArab,Malay, southern Indian and North African genes.[20]
In 2013, the department of Human Genetics of Liden University studied the genetic origins of Maldivians. The studied examinedautosomal DNA-,mitochondrial DNA-, and Y-chromosomal DNA markers in a representative sample of 141 unrelated Maldivians, with 119 from six major settlements. The researchers found a total of 63 different mtDNAhaplotypes that could be allocated to 29mtDNAs, mostly within theM,R andU clades.[32] They also reported 66 different Y-STR haplotypes in 10Y chromosome haplogroups, predominantlyR1a1,R2,H,L andJ2.[33] The study concluded that this data agreed with commonly reported Maldivian ancestry, and suggested multiple, independent immigration events and asymmetrical migration of females and males across the archipelago.[33]
The genetic study confirmed that the most likely origin of the Maldivian population was inSouth Asia with additions from theMiddle East. TheDhivehi language of the Maldives is the southernmostIndo-Aryan language and the sharing of specific haplogroups withIndo-Aryan populations mostly fromIndia and fromSri Lanka, could point to a common origin of these populations.[33]
TheMaldivian language is central to the Maldivian identity. Unlike South India's other languages, it is anIndo-European language, while other South Indian languages are Dravidian. However the language shows some influences of Dravidian languages, and many loanwords.[34]
Islam is the country'sstate religion. Maldivians are entirelyMuslims, adhering to theSunni school of thought.[15][14] Daily life is regulated according to the tenets of Islam and government policies are based onIslamic law (Shari'a).[15] The law prohibits the practice of any other religion by the country's citizens.[15] Mahls too areSunni Muslims.
Most traditional Maldivian art is influenced by Perso-Arabic tradition in some form and usually centres on Islam.
Drawing and painting are the primary visual arts. Most practitioners serve the tourist souvenir trade. Sculpture and crafts that overlap are present, but have not flourished. Lack of venues in which to exhibit, and lack of arts education and training. These include the use of local materials to produce objects such as mats, handheld or display objects,
Private galleries and exhibitions organized by the government and the artists themselves, in the 21st century has encouraged young Maldivians to pursue painting, and other public and commercial art forms. Practitioners pursue expertise via distance learning, or via books and magazines or at international universities.[35]
The traditional Maldivian performing arts have Indian and African roots.
Martial arts among Maldivians are known ashevikamuge kulhivaruthak, whilegulhamathi hifun is traditional wrestling.
Most Maldivian festivals are related to Islam, however, some festivals belong to older Maldivian traditions, such as the kite flying festival. Naming a newborn child,Mauloodhu (a prayer accompanied by a festive meal), theEid festival, and circumcision of the male child are a few events accompanied by celebrations.
A traditional meal calledKeyn is prepared for the aboveMauloodhus consisting of multiple courses. A single Keyn serves 10 – 12 people and includes rice, curries, salads, grilled fish, coconut cream, coconut syrup, bananas, puddings, and more.
Keyn is set out in a large wooden dish called aMalaafaiy. Individual plates are then filled with curries, salads, and other items and set around the rice. This would be covered with a lid and wrapped in a white cloth tied at the top. At meal times this would be carried into theMauloodh Haruge (dining hall specially made for this event) and placed on straw mats for service. Individual plates and other food items in individual dishes are placed as well. Beverages are individually set in glasses. Water is served in a ceramic jug. Food is consumed using the fingers of the right hand only. At the end of the meal, the hand is washed using a copper jug into a copper basin. 10 December is marked asKandu Rōdi duvas and 14 April asGamu Rōdi duvas on which date Maldivian language day is marked from 2011 onwards.
| Festive day | 2008[36] | 2009[36] | 2010[37] |
|---|---|---|---|
| Islamic New Year | 10 January | --- | --- |
| Ashura | 19 January | 7 January | --- |
| Mawlid an-Nabi | 20 March | 9 March | 26 February |
| Lailat al Miraj | 31 July | 20 July | ? |
| Lailat al-Baraat | 18 August | 7 August | ? |
| Ramadan[38] | 1 September[39] | 22 August | 11 August |
| Lailat al Qadr | 28 September | 17 September | ? |
| Eid ul-Fitr[38] | 1 October | 21 September | 10 September |
| Eid ul-Adha | 8 December | 27 November | 17 November |
| Islamic New Year | 29 December | 18 December | 7 December |
| Ashura | --- | 27 December | 17 December |
Traditionally Maldivian men wear amundu with a shirt, similar to that ofMalayali people. Maldivian women wear a red top with a gold neck trim called a Libaas and a long black skirt.
Rice is the major staple food in most Maldivian households. It is usually cooked and served withGarudiya (tuna soup). Specialty cuisines.
Made of rice flour, coconut – semi-firm (grated), and coconut palm syrup by mixing the ingredients until lumps disappear and cooked over moderate heat until the mixture thickens.
Made of flour, coconut – semi-hard (blended to a smooth paste), eggs, coconut cream, jasmine water, coconut palm syrup, cinnamon powder, cardamom powder, and oil by mixing the ingredients apart from the oil. Cooked over moderate heat and once the top of the pancake dries up, turned over and cooked.
Made of rice (soaked overnight), washed and blended to a smooth paste), coconut palm syrup, jasmine water, and jasmine flowers by placing all the ingredients apart from the flowers in a thick-bottomed pan and cooked over moderate heat by stirring constantly. Wrapped entirely with banana leaf and jasmine flowers are placed over the sweets. This sweet will keep for two to three months without spoiling.
Made of patna rice (soaked overnight, washed, and blended to a smooth paste), coconut – semi-firm (grated), coconut palm syrup, caster sugar, and banana leaf. The grated coconut, palm sugar, and caster sugar are cooked over moderate heat until the mixture thickens. Removed from heat and cooled. Blended rice added and kneaded thoroughly. Mixture divided into eight portions and each portion wrapped in a banana leaf and then wrapped in a second banana leaf.
The wrapped portions are placed in a hole with coconut fibres and coconut shells that are burned for 30 minutes and left overnight in the hole for consumption that day.
Made of coconut palm syrup by boiling the syrup over moderate heat and cooked by stirring continuously until it starts to thicken. Removed from heat and whisked until frothy and cool.
Made of Patna Rice flour, coconut – semi-hard (grated), and coconut palm syrup by cooking all the ingredients over moderate heat in a thick-bottomed pan stirring continuously.
When the mixture starts to come loose from the side of the pan it is removed from the heat. One tablespoon of the cooked mixture is spread on a corkwood leaf. It is smoked and dried and the leaves are spread with the sweet over the fireplace.
Made of a fried breadfruit (crushed coarsely), coconut palm syrup, and jasmine water by bringing the syrup and the jasmine water to boil and cooking over moderate heat until it comes to the ribbon stage. The crushed breadfruit is added into the sugar and coated well. It is kept in an airtight container.
Made of fried taro (crushed coarsely), coconut palm syrup, and jasmine water by boiling the syrup and the jasmine water and cooking over moderate heat until it comes to the ribbon stage. The crushed taro is added into the sugar and coated well. It is kept in an airtight container.
Made of patna rice flour, grated coconut, rihaakuru, blended rihaakuru bondi, eggs, thin-sliced onion, chopped curry leaves, cherry pepper, juice of two limes, ginger, salt to season, and oil by crushing the onion, curry leaves, cherry pepper, ginger with salt. The rice flour and coconut are added to make a sandy texture. A bay is formed in the center of the rice mixture and the eggs and rihaakuru and rihaakuru bondi are added. The dough is kneaded and divided into 15 gram balls. Each ball is spread to about ¼ inch thickness. A 3 – inch diameter round cutter divides the dough and it is cooked in pre-heated oil.
Made of coconut sap (collected at noon) by boiling the sap over moderate heat and stirring continuously until it comes to the ribbon stage. A spoonful of the thickened syrup is placed on a large greased tray in strings.
Made of patna rice flour, coconut palm syrup, eggs, and coconut oil by whisking the egg and the syrup, adding in the rice flour, and beating further. A tablespoonful of the mixture is deep-fried until golden.
Made of plantain (peeled and cut length-wise) and oil by frying the bananas until crisped. Drained on absorbent kitchen paper and kept in an airtight container.
Made of coconut palm syrup by boiling the syrup over moderate heat and cooked by stirring continuously until it starts to crystallise. After cooling, put into sealed jars.
A generation ago, Maldivians were not commonly known by their birth names. Instead, they were called alternative names such as Dohuttu, Lahuttu, Tutteedi, Kudamaniku, or Don Goma. The rationale behind this practice was that if evil spirits did not know someone's real name, they would be free from their spells.[40] The ancient Maldivian naming system is similar to that of Gujaratis and Marathas that are addressed by their first name, while the middle name is the father/mother's name, and the last name is the family name.
Common Maldivian family names include Bee, Beefan, Boo, Didi, Fan, Fulhu, Kader, Kalaminja, Kalinga, Kalo, Kavah, Kavya, Koi, Koya, Manik, Manika, Manike, Manikfan, Naha, Raha, Rana, Tarkan, Thakhan, Thakur, Thakurfan, and Veer.[41]
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