Malaysian Malays

Orang Melayu Malaysia ملايو مليسيا‎
Malay children playingTarik Upih Pinang, a traditional game that involves dragging a palm frond
Total population
Malay ethnicity 17,610,458 (2023) 57.9% of the Malaysian population[1]
Regions with significant populations
Malaysia Predominantly inPeninsular Malaysia
Languages
Malayic languages (Numerous vernacular Malay varieties) •Standard Malay •English
Religion
Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Thai Malays Malay Singaporeans Malay Indonesians Bruneian Malay Filipino Malays andAustralian Malays

Malaysian Malays (Malay:Orang Melayu Malaysia,Jawi:ملايو مليسيا‎) areMalaysians ofMalay ethnicity whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in theMalay world. They can be broadly classified into two main categories;Anak Jati (indigenous Malays or local Malays) andAnak Dagang (trading Malays or foreign Malays).^[2][3]

TheAnak Jati or native Malays consist of those individuals who adhere to the Malay culture native to the coastal areas ofMalay Peninsula and Borneo.^[3] Among notable groups include theBruneians,Kedahans,Kelantanese,Pahangite,Perakians,Sarawakians andTerengganuans. On the other hand, theAnak Dagang or foreign Malays, consist of descendants of immigrants from other parts ofMalay Archipelago who became the citizens of theMalay sultanates and wereabsorbed and assimilated into Malay culture at different times, aided by similarity in lifestyle and common religion.

The foreign Malays haveAcehnese,Banjarese,Buginese,Javanese,Mandailing andMinangkabau ancestries that come fromIndonesia.^[4][5] Some foreign Malays may also come from other parts of Southeast Asia, that includes theChams of Indochina,Cocos Malays of Australian Cocos (Keeling) Islands as well as thePatani Malays of southern Thailand. There is also a minority of Malays who are partially descended from more recent immigrants from many other countries who have assimilated into MalayMuslim culture.

According to the 2023 population estimate, Malaysia has a total population of 17.6 million, with Malaysian Malays forming 57.9% ofMalaysia's demographics, making them the largest ethnic group in the country. Varioussocioeconomic factors, including differences in fertility rates, migration trends and government policies, have gradually increased the share of Malays relative toChinese andIndians since 1957 when the Malays were at about 45%.^[6]

The identification of Malay with Islam traces its origin to the 15th century, when vigorous ethos of Malay identity was developed and transmitted during the time of theMelaka Sultanate. Common definitive markers of aMalayness are thought to have been promulgated during this era, resulting in theethnogenesis of the Malay as a majorethnoreligious group in the region. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts, and royal court traditions, Melaka set a standard that later Malay sultanates emulated.^[7][8] Today, the most commonly accepted elements of Malayness – theMalay Rulers,Malay language and culture, andIslam – are institutionalised in both Malay-majority countries,Brunei andMalaysia.^{[9][10][11][12]} As a still fully functioning Malay sultanate, Brunei proclaimedMalay Islamic Monarchy as its national philosophy.^[13] In Malaysia, where the sovereignty of individualMalay sultanates and the position of Islam are preserved, a Malay identity is defined inArticle 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia.

Article 160 defines a Malay as someone born to aMalaysian citizen who professes to be aMuslim, habitually speaks theMalay language, adheres to Malay customs, and is domiciled in Malaysia,Singapore orBrunei. This definition is perceived by some writers as loose enough to include people of a variety of ethnic backgrounds which basically can be defined as "Malaysian Muslims" and therefore differs from the anthropological understanding of what constitutes anethnic Malay.^[14] However, there exist Muslim communities in Malaysia with distinctive cultures and spoken languages that cannot be categorised constitutionally as Malay. These include Muslim communities that have notfully embraced Malayness, likeTamil Muslims andChinese Muslims.

This constitutional definition had firmly established the historical Malayethnoreligious identity in the Malaysian legal system,^[14] where it has been suggested that a Malay cannot convert out of Islam as illustrated in theFederal Court decision in the case ofLina Joy.^[15] As of the 2023, Malays made up 57.9% of the population of Malaysia (including Malaysian-born or foreign-born people of Malay descent).

TheMalay world, home of the variousMalayicAustronesian tribes since the lastIce age (circa 15,000–10,000 BCE), exhibits fascinating ethnic, linguistic and cultural variations.^[16] The indigenousanimisticbelief system, which employed the concept ofsemangat (spirit) in every natural objects, was predominant among the ancient Malayic tribes before the arrival ofDharmic religions.^[17] Deep in the estuary of theMerbok River, lies an abundance of historical relics that have unmasked several ceremonial and religious architectures devoted for the sun and mountain worshiping.^[18][19][20] At its zenith, the massive settlement sprawled across a thousand kilometers wide, dominated in the northern plains of theMalay Peninsula.^[18][19] On contemporary account, the area is known as the lost city ofSungai Batu. Founded in 535 BC, it is the oldest testament ofcivilisation inSoutheast Asia and a potential progenitor of theKedah Tua kingdom. In addition to Sungai Batu, the coastal areas of the Malay Peninsula also witnessed the development of other subsequent ancient urban settlements and regional polities, driven by a predominantly cosmopolitan agrarian society, thriving skilled craftsmanship, multinational merchants and foreign expatriates. Chinese records noted the names of Akola,P'an P'an, Tun-Sun,Chieh-ch'a,Ch'ih-tu,Pohuang,Lang-ya-xiu among few. Upon the fifth century AD, these settlements had morphed into asovereigncity-states, collectively fashioned by an active participation in the international trade network and hosting diplomatic embassies from China and India.^[18][19] Between the 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, prosperous peninsula maritime trading states, became part of themandala ofSrivijaya.^[21]

The Islamic faith arrived on the shores of the Malay Peninsula from around the 12th century.^[22] The earliest archaeological evidence of Islam is theTerengganu Inscription Stone dating from the 14th century.^[23] By the 15th century, theMelaka Sultanate, whose hegemony reached over much of the westernMalay Archipelago, had become the centre ofIslamisation in the east. Islamisation developed anethnoreligious identity in Melaka with the term 'Melayu' then, begins to appear as interchangeable with Melakans, especially in describing the cultural preferences of the Melakans as against the foreigners.^[7] It is generally believed thatMalayisation intensified within Strait of Malacca region following the territorial and commercial expansion of the sultanate in the mid 15th century.^[24] In 1511, the Melakan capital fell into the hands ofPortugueseconquistadors. However, the sultanate remained an institutional prototype: a paradigm of statecraft and a point of cultural reference for successor states likeJohor,Perak andPahang.^[25] In the same era, the sultanates ofKedah,Kelantan andPatani dominated the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. Across theSouth China Sea, theBruneian Empire became the most powerful polity inBorneo and reached its golden age in the mid-16th century when it controlled land as far south as present dayKuching inSarawak, north towards thePhilippine Archipelago.^[26] By the 18th century,Minangkabau andBugis settlers established the chiefdom ofNegeri Sembilan and the sultanate ofSelangor respectively.

Historically,Malay states of the peninsula had hostile relations with theSiamese. Melaka herself fought two wars with the Siamese while northern Malay states came intermittently under Siamese dominance for centuries. From 1771, theKingdom of Siam under theChakri dynasty annexed bothPatani andKedah. Between 1808 and 1813, the Siamese partitioned Patani into smaller states while carving outSetul, Langu,Kubang Pasu andPerlis from Kedah in 1839.^[29][30] In 1786, the island ofPenang was leased toEast India Company by Kedah in exchange of military assistance against the Siamese. In 1819, the company also acquiredSingapore fromJohor Empire, later in 1824,Dutch Malacca from the Dutch, and followed byDindings fromPerak by 1874. All these trading posts officially known asStraits Settlements in 1826 and became the crown colony ofBritish Empire in 1867. British intervention in the affairs of Malay states was formalised in 1895, whenMalay rulers ofPahang,Selangor,Perak andNegeri Sembilan acceptedBritish Residents and formed theFederated Malay States. In 1909,Kedah,Kelantan,Terengganu andPerlis werehanded over by Siam to the British. These states along withJohor, later became known asUnfederated Malay States. During theWorld War II, all theseBritish possessions and protectorates that collectively known asBritish Malaya were occupied by theEmpire of Japan.

Malay nationalism, which developed in the early 1900s, had a cultural rather than a political character. The discussions on a 'Malay nation' focussed on questions of identity and distinction in terms of customs, religion, and language, rather than politics. The debate surrounding the transition centred on the question of who could be called the real Malay, and the friction led to the emergence of various factions amongst Malay nationalists.^[31] The leftists fromKesatuan Melayu Muda were among the earliest who appeared with an ideal of aRepublic ofGreater Indonesia for aPan-Malay identity.^[32] The version of Malayness brought by this group was largely modelled on theorientalist's concept ofMalay race, that transcend the religious boundary and with the absence of the role of monarchy.^[33] Another attempt to redefine the Malayness was made by a coalition of left wing political parties, theAMCJA, that proposed the term 'Melayu' as ademonym or citizenship for an independent Malaya. In the wake of the armed rebellion launched by theMalayan Communist Party, the activities of most left wing organizations came to a halt following the declaration ofMalayan Emergency in 1948 that witnessed a major purges by the British colonial government.^[32] This development left those of moderate and traditionalist faction, with an opportunity to gain their ground in the struggle for Malaya's independence.^[34] The conservatives led byUnited Malays National Organization, that vehemently promoted Malay language, Islam and Malay monarchy as key pillars ofMalayness, emerged with popular support not only from general Malay population, but also from the Rulers of theConference of Rulers. Mass protests from this group against theMalayan Union, a unitary state project, forced the British to accept an alternative federalist order known as theFederation of Malaya.^[16] The federation would later be reconstituted as Malaysia in 1963.

Malay is thenational language, and the most commonly spoken language in Malaysia, where it is estimated that 20 percent of all native speakers of Malay live.^[35] The terminology as per federal government policy isBahasa Malaysia (literally "Malaysian language")^[36] but in the federal constitution continues to refer to the official language asBahasa Melayu (literally "Malay language").^[37] The National Language Act 1967 specifies theLatin (Rumi) script as the officialscript of the national language, but allow the use of the traditionalJawi script.^[38] Jawi is still used in the official documents of state Islamic religious departments and councils, on road and building signs, and also taught in primary and religious schools.

Malay is also spokenBrunei,Indonesia,Singapore,Timor Leste as well asThailand and Australian Cocos and Christmas Islands. The total number of speakers of Standard Malay is about 60 million.^[39] There are also about 198 million people who speakIndonesian, which is a form of Malay.^[40] Standard Malay differs from Indonesian in a number of ways, the most striking being in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling. Less obvious differences are present in grammar. The differences are rarely a barrier to effective communication between Indonesian and Malay speakers, but there are certainly enough differences to cause occasional misunderstandings, usually surrounding slang or dialect differences.

The Malay language came into widespread use as thelingua franca of theMelaka sultanate (1402–1511). During this period, the language developed rapidly under the influence of Islamic literature. The development changed the nature of the language with massive infusion ofArabic andSanskrit vocabularies, calledClassical Malay. Under Melaka, the language evolved into a form recognisable to speakers of modern Malay. When the court moved to establish theJohor Sultanate, it continued using the classical language; it has become so associated with Dutch Riau and British Johor that it is often assumed that the Malay of Riau is close to the classical language. However, there is no connection between Melakan Malay as used on Riau and the Riau vernacular.^[41]

Variants of Malay in Malaysia differed by states, districts or even villages. The Melaka-Johor dialect, owing to its prominence in the past, became the standard speech among Malays in Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore. There are also well-known variants ofMalayan languages that are mostly unintelligible to Standard Malay speakers includingKelantanese,Terengganuan,Pahangite,Kedahan (including Perlisian and Penangite),Perakian,Negeri Sembilanese,Sarawakian, andBruneian (including a Bruneian-based pidginSabah Malay).

In Malaysia, the state's constitution empoweredMalay rulers as the head of Islam and Malay customs in their respective state. State councils known asMajlis Agama Islam dan Adat Istiadat Melayu (Council of Islam and Malay Customs) are responsible in advising the rulers as well as regulating both Islamic affairs and Malayadat.^[46][47] Legal proceedings on matters related to Islamic affairs and Malay adat are carried out inSyariah Court. There is considerable genetic, linguistic, cultural, and social diversity among the many Malay subgroups as a result of hundreds of years of immigration and assimilation of various regional ethnicity and tribes withinSoutheast Asia.

Malay cultures trace their origin from the early settlers that consist primarily from both variousMalayic speakingAustronesians and variousAustroasiatic tribes.^[48] Around the opening of the common era, Dharmic religions were introduced to the region, where it flourished with the establishment of many ancient maritime trading states in the coastal areas of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.^[49][50] Much of the cultural identities originating from these ancient states survived among the east coasters (Kelantanese,Terengganuans,Pahangites), northerners (Kedahans andPerakians), and Bornean (Bruneians andSarawakians).^[2]

The traditional culture of Malaysian Malays is largely predominated by the indigenous Malay culture mixed with a variety of foreign influences. As opposed to other regional Malays, the southern Malays (Selangoreans, Negeri Sembilanese, Melakans and Johoreans) display the cultural legacy of theMelaka sultanate. Common definitive markers ofMalayness – the religion ofIslam,Malay language andMalay adat – are thought to have been promulgated in the region.^[51] This region also shows the influences of other parts of the Malay Archipelago due to mass migration during the 17th century. Among the earliest groups were theMinangkabau who had established themselves inNegeri Sembilan,Buginese who had formed theSelangor sultanate and domiciled in large numbers inJohor.

The development of many Malay Muslim-dominated centres in the region drew many of the non-Malay indigenous people like theDayak,Orang Asli andOrang laut, to embraceMalayness by converting to Islam, emulating the Malay speech and their dress.^[52] Throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics.^[53][54] Theyabsorbed,shared andtransmitted numerous cultural features of other foreign ethnic groups. The cultural fusion between local Malay culture and other foreign cultures also led to the ethnocultural development of the relatedArab Peranakan,Baba Nyonya,Chetti Melaka,Jawi Pekan,Kristang,Sam-sam andPunjabi Peranakan cultures.^[55]

Today, some Malays have recent forebears from other parts ofmaritime Southeast Asia, termed asanak dagang ("traders") or foreign Malays who have assimilated into the Malay culture. Other significant population of foreign Malays also includesAcehnese inKedah,Banjarese andMandailing inPerak,Chams andPatani Malays inKelantan andTerengganu as well asCocos Malays in Sabah. Between the 19th century and the early 20th century, a significant number of immigrants fromJava andSumatra came as traders, settlers and indenture labours to Malaya. British census from 1911 to 1931 shows that many of the immigrants concentrated on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula and largely predominated by ethnicJavanese.^[56] The process of adaptation and assimilation carried out by these ethnicities later gave birth to new Malay communities that retain a close relationship with their cultural roots in Java and Sumatra until today.^[57]

In 1971, the government created a "National Culture Policy", definingMalaysian culture. The three principles of the National Culture Policy are; Malaysian culture must be based on the indigenous culture of the region, that is the Malay culture, secondly it may incorporate suitable elements from other cultures, and lastly that Islam must play a part in it.^[58] Much of Malaysian culture shows heavy influences from Malay culture, an example can be seen in the belief system, whereby the practice ofKeramat shrine worshipping that prevalent amongMalaysian Chinese, originates from the Malay culture. Other Malay cultural influence can also be seen in traditional dress, cuisine, literature, music, arts and architecture. Traditional Malay dress varies between different regions but the most popular dress in modern-day areBaju Kurung andBaju Kebaya (for women) andBaju Melayu (for men), which all recognised as the national dress ofMalaysia.^[59]

Many other Malay cultural heritage, are considered as Malaysian national heritage includingMak Yong,Dondang Sayang,Silat,Pantun,Songket,Mek Mulung,Kris,Wayang Kulit,Batik,Pinas andGamelan.^[60] Theclassical Malay literature tradition that flourished since the 15th century and various genres ofMalay folklore also forms the basis of the modernMalaysian literature andfolklore. TheMalaysian music scene also witnessed strong influence from the Malay traditional music. One particularly important was the emergence ofIrama Malaysia ('Malaysian beat'), a type of Malaysian pop music that combined Malay social dance and syncretic music such as Asli,Inang,Joget,Zapin,Ghazal,Bongai,Dikir Barat,Boria,Keroncong andRodat.^[61]

Malays are the majority of the ethnic groups in Malaysia. Every state has a population of Malays ranging from around 40% to over 90%, except forSabah andSarawak which are the only states where Malays are less than 30%. Figures given below are from the 2023 census, and 2020 numbers. The population figures are also given as percentages of the total state population that includes non-citizens.

TheAnak Jati groups consist of all Malay subgroups native to the Malay Peninsula and coastal areas of Sabah and Sarawak. The following are among the major subgroups:

Other than theAnak Jati or indigenous Malays, there are Malay communities in Malaysia with full or partial ancestry of other ethnicities ofMaritime Southeast Asia. The communities, collectively termed asAnak Dagang or traders or foreign Malays, are descendants of immigrants from various ethnicities likeAcehnese,Banjarese,Boyanese,Bugis,Chams,Javanese,Minangkabaus, andTausugs who have effectivelyassimilated into the local Malay culture.^[63][64]

From the 17th century, Bugis mercenaries and merchants involved in both commercial and political ventures in the Malay sultanates, later establishing their main settlements alongKlang andSelangor estuaries. Another case of in-movements was the migration of Minangkabau peoples toNegeri Sembilan. The resulting intermarriages between the Minangkabau immigrants and the nativeProto-MalayTemuan peoples, gave birth to a Malay community in Negeri Sembilan that adopted extensively the indigenous customary law orAdat Benar and traditional political organization.^[65] Apart from being described as bilateral in nature, the earlier movements of peoples involving the Malay Peninsula, can be described as small in extent, with no other evidence of mass migration that caused significant demographic change.^[66]

In the 19th century, the growth in arrivals of Indonesians coincided with the consolidation of British influence inMalaya.^[67] This was a period of extensive economic growth which saw economic centres in theStraits Settlements and their neighbouring West Coast States of central and southern Malaya, became the main destination of immigrants.^[68] In 1824, the Indonesian immigrant population began to be enumerated for the first time by the British administration in the Straits Settlements.^[69] By 1871, the Indonesian population in the Straits Settlements was recorded at 12,143, mostly can be found inSingapore, with Javanese was the most numerous ethnicity.^[70] Despite this, the Indonesian population was considerably small, and their growth was slow compared to their Chinese counterparts.^[68] In 1891, the census area began to be extended to theFederated Malay States and recorded a total of 20,307 Indonesians.^[71] At the same time, the state ofJohor underTemenggong Daeng Ibrahim (1841–1855) encouraged the migration of estate labourers from Java to work in the agricultural sector of the state.^[72] Such policy was continued under the rule of his son,Abu Bakar. As a result, in the first Malayan-wide census in 1911, Johor recorded the largest Indonesian population, 37,000^[73] from overall 117,600 Indonesians in Malaya.^[74]

Between 1911 and 1957 censuses, the Indonesian population in Malaya stood between 8.6% to 14.5% of total number of Malays,^[75] numerically inferior to those native peninsula Malays in the north and eastern states.^[76] In individual States during the 1911—1957 period, the Indonesian population had exceeded 50% of the total Malays only in 1931, in Johor.^[76] After 1957, due to stricter government controls on the movements of Indonesians into Malaya, it is most unlikely to see similar immigration pattern in the past in Malaya.^[77] Because of their relatively small population and their close and strong cultural and ethnic relationships with the indigenous Malays, within decades, most of these Indonesian immigrants were effectivelyassimilated into theMalay identity.^[63][64][78]

In more recent times, during theVietnam War, a sizable number of Chams migrated toPeninsular Malaysia, where they were granted sanctuary by theMalaysian government out of sympathy for fellow Muslims; most of them have also assimilated with theMalay cultures.^[79]

Studies on the genetics of modern Malays show a complex history ofadmixture of human populations. The analyses reveal that the Malays are genetically diverse, and that there are substantial variations between different populations of Malays. The differences may have arisen from geographical isolation and independent admixture that occurred over a long period. The studies indicate that there is no single representative genetic component, rather there are four major ancestral components to the Malay people: Austronesian aborigines, Proto-Malay, East Asian, and South Asian, with the Austronesian and Proto-Malay components comprising 60–70% of the genome.^[81] The Austronesian component is related to the TaiwaneseAmi andAtayal people, and genetic analyses of the Austronesian component in Southeast Asians may lend support to the "Out of Taiwan" hypothesis, although some suggest that it is largely indigenous with a smaller contribution from Taiwan.^[82][83] The Proto-Malays such as theTemuan people show genetic evidence of having moved out ofYunnan, China, thought to be about 4,000–6,000 years ago.^[84] The admixture events with South Asians (Indians) may have been ancient (estimate of up to 2,250 years ago in some Indonesian Malays), while the admixture events with East Asians (Chinese) may be more recent (100–200 years ago),^[81] although some may have occurred before the 15th century in Java.^[84] There are also minor components contributed by other groups such as theNegritos (the earliest inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula), Central Asians and Europeans. Most of the admixture events are estimated to have occurred 175 to 1,500 years ago.^[81]

Within the Malay Peninsula itself, the Malays are differentiated genetically into distinct clusters between the northern part of the Malay Peninsula and the south.^[85]SNP analyses of five of their sub-ethnic groups show that Melayu Kelantan and Melayu Kedah (both in the northern Malay Peninsula) are closely related to each other as well as toMelayu Patani, but are distinct from Melayu Minang (western), Melayu Jawa and Melayu Bugis (both southern).^[86] The Melayu Minang, Melayu Jawa and Melayu Bugis people show close relationship with the people of Indonesia, evidence of their shared common ancestry with these people.^[84] However, Melayu Minang are closer genetically to Melayu Kelantan and Melayu Kedah than they are to Melayu Jawa. Among the Melayu Kelantan and Melayu Kedah populations, there are significant Indian components, in particular from theTelugus andMarathis. The Melayu Kedah and Melayu Kelantan also have closer genetic relationship to the two subgroups of the Orang AsliSemang,Jahai andKensiu, than other Malay groups. Four of the Malay sub-ethnic groups in this study (the exception being Melayu Bugis, who are related to the people ofSulawesi, Indonesia) also show genetic similarity to the Proto-MalayTemuan people with possible admixture to the Jawa populations and theWa people ofYunnan, China.^[86]

• Bruneian Malays
• Patani Malays
• Malay Singaporean
• Cocos Malays
• Malay Indonesian
• Sama-Bajau
• Tausūg people
• Dayak people

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• Ethnoreligious groups in Asia
• Malaysian people of Malay descent
• Ethnic groups in Malaysia
• Malay people

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