The nameMalaysia is a combination of the wordMalays and the Latin-Greek suffix-ia/-ία[20] which can be translated as 'land of the Malays'.[21] Similar-sounding variants have also appeared in accounts older than the 11th century, astoponyms for areas in Sumatra or referring to a larger region around the Strait of Malacca.[22] The Sanskrit textVayu Purana, thought to have been in existence since the first millennium CE, mentioned a land named 'Malayadvipa' which was identified by certain scholars as the modernMalay Peninsula.[23][24][25][26][27] Other notable accounts are by the 2nd-century Ptolemy'sGeographia that used the nameMalayu Kulon for the west coast ofGolden Chersonese, and the 7th-centuryYijing's account ofMalayu.[22]
At some point, theMelayu Kingdom took its name from theSungai Melayu.[28][29]Melayu then became associated withSrivijaya,[22] and remained associated with various parts of Sumatra, especially Palembang, where the founder of theMalacca Sultanate is thought to have come from.[30] It is only thought to have developed into anethnonym as Malacca became a regional power in the 15th century.Islamisation established anethnoreligious identity in Malacca, with the termMelayu beginning to appear as interchangeable withMelakans. It may have specifically referred to local Malay speakers who were loyal to the Malaccan Sultan. The initial Portuguese use ofMalayos reflected this, referring only to the ruling people of Malacca. The prominence of traders from Malacca ledMelayu to be associated with Muslim traders, and from there became associated with the wider cultural and linguistic group.[22] Malacca and laterJohor claimed they were the centre of Malay culture, a position supported by the British which led to the termMalay becoming more usually linked to the Malay peninsula rather than Sumatra.[30]
Before the onset of European colonisation, the Malay Peninsula was known natively asTanah Melayu ('Malay Land').[31] Under a racial classification created by a German scholarJohann Friedrich Blumenbach, the natives ofmaritime Southeast Asia were grouped into a single category, theMalay race.[32][33] Following the expedition of French navigatorJules Dumont d'Urville toOceania in 1826, he later proposed the terms ofMalaysia,Micronesia andMelanesia to theSociété de Géographie in 1831, distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from the existing termPolynesia. Dumont d'Urville described Malaysia as "an area commonly known as the East Indies".[34] In 1850, the English ethnologistGeorge Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in theJournal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, proposed naming the islands of Southeast Asia as "Melayunesia" or "Indunesia", favouring the former.[35] The name Malaysia gained some use to label what is now the Malay Archipelago.[36] In modern terminology,Malay remains the name of anethnoreligious group ofAustronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and portions of the adjacent islands ofSoutheast Asia, including the east coast of Sumatra, the coast ofBorneo, and smaller islands that lie between these areas.[37]
The state that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 took the nametheFederation of Malaya, chosen in preference to other potential names such asMalaysia[38] andLangkasuka,[38] after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium CE.[39][40] Nonetheless, the nameMalaysia was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya, plus Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation.[41][e] One theory posits the name was chosen so thatsi represented the inclusion of Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak to Malaya in 1963.[41] Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state Malaysia before the modern country took the name.[43]
TheMalacca Sultanate played a major role in spreading Islam throughout the Malay Archipelago.
Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000 years.[44] In the Malay Peninsula, the first inhabitants are thought to beNegritos.[45][46] Areas of Malaysia participated in the Maritime Jade Road between 2000 BC to 1000 AD.[47][48][49][50] Traders and settlers fromIndia andChina arrived as early as the first century AD, establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the second and third centuries. Their presence resulted in strongIndian andChinese influences on the local cultures, and the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the religions ofHinduism andBuddhism.Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth or fifth century.[51] The Kingdom ofLangkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula, lasting until about the 15th century.[39] Between the 7th and 13th centuries, much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritimeSrivijayan empire. By the 13th and the 14th century, theMajapahit empire had successfully wrested control over most of the peninsula and the Malay Archipelago from Srivijaya.[52] In the early 15th century,Parameswara, a runaway king of the formerKingdom of Singapura linked to the old Srivijayan court, founded theMalacca Sultanate.[53] The spread of Islam increased following Parameswara's conversion to that religion. Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the region.[54]
The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of theDutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control ofMalacca
In 1511,Malacca was conquered byPortugal,[54] after which it was taken by theDutch in 1641. In 1786, theBritish Empire established a presence in Malaya, when the Sultan of Kedah leasedPenang Island to the BritishEast India Company. The British obtained the town of Singapore in 1819,[55] and in 1824 took control of Malacca following theAnglo-Dutch Treaty. By 1826, the British directly controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island ofLabuan, which they established as the crown colony of theStraits Settlements. By the 20th century, the states ofPahang,Selangor,Perak, andNegeri Sembilan, known together as theFederated Malay States, had Britishresidents appointed to advise the Malay rulers, to whom the rulers were bound to defer by treaty.[56] The remaining five states on the peninsula, known as theUnfederated Malay States, while not directly under British rule, also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century. Under British rule theimmigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged.[57] The area that is nowSabah came under British control asNorth Borneo when both theSultan of Brunei and theSultan of Sulu transferred their respective territorial rights of ownership, between 1877 and 1878.[58] In 1842, Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei toJames Brooke, whose successors ruled as theWhite Rajahs over an independentkingdom until 1946, when it became acrown colony.[59]
In theSecond World War, theJapanese Armyinvaded and occupiedMalaya,North Borneo, Sarawak, andSingapore for over three years. During this time, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.[60] Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered by Allied forces.[61] Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called theMalayan Union met with strong opposition from theMalays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to theethnic Chinese. The Malayan Union, established in 1946, and consisting of all theBritish possessions in the Malay Peninsula except forSingapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced on 1 February 1948 by theFederation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.[62]
Leader of the Malayan Communist PartyLee Meng holding a rifle during the Malayan Emergency, 1951
During this time, the mostly ethnically Chinese rebels under the leadership of theMalayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. TheMalayan Emergency (1948–1960) involved a long anti-insurgency campaign byCommonwealth troops in Malaya.[63] On 31 August 1957,Malaya became an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations.[64] Subsequently, a comprehensive plan was devised to unite Malaya with the crown colonies of North Borneo (known asSabah upon joining),Sarawak, andSingapore. The envisioned federation was originally intended to take place on 31 August 1963, to coincide with the commemoration of Malayan independence. However, due to the necessity of conducting a survey on the level of support for the federation in Sabah and Sarawak by theUnited Nations, as requested by opponents of the federation such asIndonesia'sSukarno and theSarawak United Peoples' Party, the date of the federation was postponed until 16 September 1963.[65][66]
Malaysia is afederalconstitutionalelective monarchy and the only federal country in Southeast Asia.[77] The system of government is closely modelled on theWestminster parliamentary system, a legacy ofBritish rule.[78] The head of state is the King, whose official title is theYang di-Pertuan Agong. The King is elected to a five-year term by and from among the nine hereditaryrulers of theMalay states. The other four states, which have titularGovernors, do not participate in the selection. By informal agreement the position is rotated among the nine,[78] and has been held byIbrahim Iskandar of Johor since 31 January 2024. The King's role has been largely ceremonial since changes to theconstitution in1994, picking ministers and members of the upper house.[79]
Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. The bicameral federalparliament consists of thelower house, theHouse of Representatives and theupper house, theSenate.[80] The 222-member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five years from single-member constituencies. All 70 senators sit for three-year terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies, and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister's recommendation.[54] The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through afirst-past-the-post system.[54][81] Parliamentaryelections are held at least once every five years.[54] Before 2018, only registered voters aged 21 and above could vote for the members of the House of Representatives and, in most of the states, for the state legislative chamber. Voting is not mandatory.[82] In July 2019, a bill to lower thevoting age to 18 years old was officially passed.[83]
Malaysia's legal system is based oncommon law.[54] Althoughthe judiciary is theoretically independent, its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency.[87] The highest court in the judicial system is theFederal Court, followed by theCourt of Appeal and twohigh courts, one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia. Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases brought by or against royalty.[88]
Race is a significant force in politics.[54]Affirmative actions such as theNew Economic Policy[70] and theNational Development Policy which superseded it, were implemented to advance the standing of thebumiputera, consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Malaysia, over non-bumiputera such asMalaysian Chinese andMalaysian Indians.[89] These policies provide preferential treatment tobumiputera in employment, education, scholarships, business, and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. However, it has generated greater interethnic resentment.[90] There is ongoingdebate over whether the laws and society of Malaysia should reflectIslamism orsecularism.[91] Islamic criminal laws passed by thePan-Malaysian Islamic Party with the support of UMNO state assemblymen in the state legislative assembly of Kelantan have been unenforced by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws are the responsibility of the federal government.[92][93][94]
After UMNO lost power at the2018 Malaysian general election, Malaysia's ranking increased by 9 places in the 2019Democracy Index to 43rd compared to the previous year and is classified as a 'flawed democracy'.[95] Malaysia's ranking in the 2020Press Freedom Index increased by 22 places to 101st compared to the previous year, making it one of two countries in Southeast Asia without a 'Difficult situation' or 'Very Serious situation' with regards to press freedom.[96] However, it fell 18 places the following year due to the policies of the PN government.[97]
Malaysia is afederation of 13 states and three federal territories.[102] Out of these, eleven states and two federal territories are inPeninsular Malaysia, whereas the other two states and one federal territory compriseEast Malaysia.
The country has three tiers of government –federal,state and local.[103] Governance of the states is divided between the federal and the state governments, with different powers reserved for each, and the federal government has direct administration of the federal territories.[104] Each state has a unicameralState Legislative Assembly whose members are elected from single-member constituencies. State governments are led byChief Ministers,[54] who are state assembly members from the majority party in the assembly. In each of the states with a hereditary ruler, the Chief Minister is normally required to be aMalay, appointed by the ruler upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister.[105] Until2018, state elections were held concurrently with the general election byconvention, except for those inSarawak.[79] Following the2020–2022 political crisis, onlyPahang,Perak andPerlis opted to conduct their state elections simultaneously with the general elections.[106]
Positioned below the federal and state governments,local governments represent the lowest tier of governance in Malaysia.[103] As of 2024[update], Malaysia is divided between 19 cities, 40 municipalities, 91 district-level councils, and four statutory agencies.[107] While the federal constitution assigns local authorities to the exclusive jurisdiction of state governments,[108] in practice, thefederal Ministry of Housing and Local Government oversees the regulation of local laws and policies.[103][109]Mayors (or presidents for municipal and district councils) andcouncillors are appointed by the respective state governments, or in the case of the federal territories, by the federal government.[110]
Federal laws assign land matters, including the delineation ofdistricts, to the purview of state governments.[111] Except Perlis and the federal territories, each state is divided into districts, which are further subdivided intomukims. InSabah and Sarawak, districts are grouped into divisions.[112] In contrast to local governments that manage municipal administration and infrastructure development,[113] districts are solely utilised for land taxation.[114]
The 13 states are based on historical Malay kingdoms, and 9 of the 11 Peninsular states, known as theMalay states, retain their royal families. The King is elected by and fromthe nine rulers to serve a five-year term.[54] This King appoints governors serving a four-year term for the states without monarchies, after consultations with the chief minister of that state. Each state has its written constitution.[115] Sabah and Sarawak have considerably more autonomy than the other states, most notably having separate immigration policies and controls, and unique residency status.[116][117][118] Federal intervention in state affairs, lack of development, and disputes over oilroyalties have occasionally led to statements aboutsecession from leaders in several states such asPenang,Johor,Kelantan, Sabah and Sarawak, although these have not been followed up and no serious independence movements exist.[119][120][121][122]
States
A list of thirteen states and each state capital (in parentheses):
Malaysia's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, regardless of their political system.[131] The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia,[130] and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region. Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a progressive Islamic nation[131] while strengthening relations with other Islamic states.[130] A strong tenet of Malaysia's policy is national sovereignty and right of a country to control its domestic affairs.[79] Malaysia signed the U.N. treaty on theProhibition of Nuclear Weapons.[132][133]
TheSpratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area, anda large portion of the South China Sea is claimed byChina. Unlike its neighbours ofVietnam and thePhilippines, Malaysia historically avoided conflicts with China.[134] However, after the encroachment of Chinese ships in Malaysian territorial waters,[135] and breach of airspace by their military aircraft, Malaysia has become active in condemning China.[136][137] Brunei and Malaysia in 2009 announced an end to claims of each other's land, and committed to resolve issues related to their maritime borders.[138] The Philippines has adormant claim to the eastern part of Sabah.[139] Singapore's land reclamation has caused tensions,[140] and minor maritime and land border disputes exist with Indonesia.[139][141]
TheFive Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative that has been in place for almost 40 years. It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.[144] Joint exercises and war games have also been held with Brunei,[145] China,[146] India,[147] Indonesia,[148] Japan,[149] and the United States.[150] Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration,piracy, andsmuggling.[151][152][153] Previously there were fears that extremist militant activities in the Muslim areas of thesouthern Philippines[154] andsouthern Thailand[155] would spill over into Malaysia. Because of this, Malaysia began to increase its border security.[156][157]
Malaysia is the66th largest country by total land area, with a total area of 330,803 km2 (127,724 sq mi).[9] It has landborders with Thailand in West Malaysia, andIndonesia andBrunei in East Malaysia.[21] It is linked toSingapore by a narrow causeway and abridge. The country also hasmaritime boundaries withVietnam[172] and the Philippines.[173] The land borders are defined in large part by geological features such as thePerlis River, theGolok River and the Pagalayan Canal, whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention.[21] Brunei forms what is almost an enclave in Malaysia,[174] with the state of Sarawak dividing it into two parts. Malaysia is the only country with territory on both the Asian mainland and the Malay archipelago.[175] TheStrait of Malacca, lying betweenSumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, is one of the most important thoroughfares in global commerce, carrying 40 percent of the world's trade.[176]
The two parts of Malaysia, separated from each other by theSouth China Sea, share a largely similar landscape in that both Peninsular and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to hills and mountains.[21] Peninsular Malaysia, containing 40 per cent of Malaysia's land area,[175] extends 740 km (460 mi) from north to south, and its maximum width is 322 km (200 mi).[177] It is divided between its east and west coasts by theTitiwangsa Mountains,[178] rising to a peak elevation of 2,183 metres (7,162 ft) atMount Korbu,[179] part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of the peninsula.[175] These mountains are heavily forested,[180] and mainly composed ofgranite and other igneous rocks. Much of it has been eroded, creating akarst landscape.[175] The range is the origin of some of Peninsular Malaysia's river systems.[181] The coastal plains surrounding the peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 kilometres (31 mi), and the peninsula's coastline is nearly 1,931 km (1,200 mi) long, although harbours are only available on the western side.[177]
East Malaysia, on the island ofBorneo, has a coastline of 2,607 km (1,620 mi).[21] It is divided between coastal regions, hills and valleys, and a mountainous interior.[175] TheCrocker Range extends northwards from Sarawak,[175] dividing the state of Sabah. It is the location of the 4,095 m (13,435 ft) highMount Kinabalu,[182][183] the tallest mountain in Malaysia. Mount Kinabalu is located in theKinabalu National Park, which is protected as one of the four UNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesin Malaysia.[184] The highest mountain ranges form the border between Malaysia and Indonesia. Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves, the largest cave system in the world, in theGunung Mulu National Park which is also a World Heritage Site.[175] The largest river in Malaysia is theRajang.
Around these two halves of Malaysia arenumerous islands, the largest of which isBanggi.[185] The local climate isequatorial and characterised by the annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February)monsoons.[177] The temperature is moderated by the presence of the surrounding oceans.[175] Humidity is usually high, and the average annual rainfall is 250 cm (98 in).[177] The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ, as the climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland, as opposed to the more maritime weather of the East. Local climates can be divided into three regions, highland, lowland, and coastal.[175]Climate change will causesea level rise and increased rainfall, increasing flood risks and leading to droughts.[186]
Malaysia signed the RioConvention on Biological Diversity on 12 June 1993, and became a party to the convention on 24 June 1994.[187] It has subsequently produced aNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 16 April 1998.[188] The country ismegadiverse with a high number of species and high levels ofendemism.[189] It is estimated to contain 20 per cent of the world's animal species.[190] High levels of endemism are found on the diverse forests of Borneo's mountains, as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest.[175]
There are about 210 mammal species in the country.[182] Over 620 species of birds have been recorded in Peninsular Malaysia,[190] with many endemic to the mountains there. A high number of endemic bird species are also found in Malaysian Borneo.[175] 250 reptile species have been recorded in the country, with about 150 species of snakes[191] and 80 species of lizards.[182] There are about 150 species of frogs,[182] and thousands of insect species.[182] TheExclusive economic zone of Malaysia is 334,671 km2 (129,217 sq mi) and 1.5 times larger than its land area. It is mainly in theSouth China Sea.[192][193] Some of its waters are in theCoral Triangle, a biodiversity hotspot.[194] The waters aroundSipadan island are the most biodiverse in the world.[190] Bordering East Malaysia, theSulu Sea is a biodiversity hotspot, with around 600 coral species and 1200 fish species.[195] The unique biodiversity of Malaysian Caves always attracts lovers ofecotourism from all over the world.[196]
Nearly 4,000 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species have been recorded from Malaysia. Of the two fungal groups with the largest number of species in Malaysia, theAscomycota and their asexual states have been surveyed in some habitats (decaying wood, marine, and freshwater ecosystems, as parasites of some plants, and as agents of biodegradation), but have not been or have been only poorly surveyed in other habitats (as endobionts, in soils, on dung, as human and animal pathogens); theBasidiomycota are only partly surveyed:bracket fungi, and mushrooms andtoadstools have been studied, but Malaysian rust and smut fungi remain very poorly known. Without a doubt, many more fungal species in Malaysia are yet to be recorded, and it is likely that many of those, when found, will be new to science.[197]
Some species ofRafflesia can grow up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter, making them the largest flowers in the world.
About two thirds of Malaysia was covered in forest as of 2007,[177] with some forests believed to be 130 million years old.[182] The forests are dominated bydipterocarps.[198] Lowland forest covers areas below 760 m (2,490 ft),[177] and formerly East Malaysia was covered insuch rainforest,[198] which is supported by its hot wet climate.[175] There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees.[182] Besides rainforests, there are over 1,425 km2 (550 sq mi) ofmangroves in Malaysia,[177] and a large amount of peat forest. At higher altitudes, oaks, chestnuts, and rhododendrons replace dipterocarps.[175] There are an estimated 8,500 species ofvascular plants in Peninsular Malaysia, with another 15,000 in the East.[199] The forests of East Malaysia are estimated to be the habitat of around 2,000 tree species, and are one of the most biodiverse areas in the world, with 240 different species of trees every hectare.[175] These forests host many members of theRafflesia genus, the largest flowers in the world,[198] with a maximum diameter of 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[200]
Logging, along with cultivation practices, has devastated tree cover, causing severe environmental degradation in the country. Over 80 per cent of Sarawak's rainforest has been logged.[175] Floods in East Malaysia have been worsened by the loss of trees, and over 60 per cent of the peninsula's forests have been cleared.[200] With current rates ofdeforestation, mainly for thepalm oil industry, the forests are predicted to be extinct by 2020.[175][201]Deforestation is a major problem for animals, fungi and plants, having caused species such asBegonia eiromischa to go extinct.[202] Most remaining forest is found inside reserves and national parks.[200] Habitat destruction has proved a threat for marine life.[195]Illegal fishing is another major threat,[195] with fishing methods such asdynamite fishing and poisoning depleting marine ecosystems.[203]Leatherback turtle numbers have dropped 98 per cent since the 1950s.[191] Hunting has also been an issue for some animals,[200] withoverconsumption and the use of animal parts for profit endangering many animals, from marine life[195] to tigers.[202] Marine life is also detrimentally affected by uncontrolled tourism.[204]
The Malaysian government aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection, but has been accused of favouring big business over the environment.[200] Some state governments are now trying to counter the environmental impact and pollution created by deforestation;[198] and the federal government is trying to cut logging by 10 per cent each year. A total of28 national parks have been established, 23 in East Malaysia and five in the peninsula.[200] Tourism has been limited in biodiverse areas such as Sipadan island.[204]Wildlife trafficking is a large issue, and the Malaysian government has held talks with the governments of Brunei and Indonesia to standardise anti-trafficking laws.[205]
Malaysia is the world's 23rd-largestexporter and 25th-largestimporter.[212][213] However, economic inequalities exist between different ethnic groups.[214] The Chinese make up about one-quarter of the population, but account for 70 per cent of the country's market capitalisation.[215] Chinese businesses in Malaysia are part of the largerbamboo network, a network ofoverseas Chinese businesses in the Southeast Asian market sharing common family and cultural ties.[216]
International trade, facilitated by the shipping route in adjacentStrait of Malacca, and manufacturing are the key sectors.[217][218][176] Malaysia is an exporter of natural and agricultural resources, and petroleum is a major export.[54] Malaysia has once been the largest producer oftin,[219]rubber andpalm oil in the world. Manufacturing has a large influence in the country's economy,[218] although Malaysia's economic structure has been moving away from it.[220] Malaysia remains one of the world's largest producers of palm oil.[221]
Tourism is the third-largest contributor to Malaysia's GDP, after the manufacturing and commodities sectors.[222] In 2019, the sector contributed about 15.9 percent to the total GDP. According to theWorld Tourism Organization, Malaysia was the fourteenth-most visited country in the world, and the fourth-most visited country in Asia in 2019, with over 26.1 million visits.[223] Malaysia was ranked 38th in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019.[224] Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $19.8 billion.[223]
The country has developed into a centre ofIslamic banking and has the highest number of female workers in that industry.[225] Knowledge-based services are also expanding.[220] In 2020, Malaysia exported high-tech products worth $92.1 billion, the second-highest in ASEAN, after Singapore.[226] Malaysia was ranked 33rd in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024, and 32nd in theGlobal Competitiveness Report in 2022.[227][228]
Malaysia'stelecommunications network is second only to Singapore's in Southeast Asia, with 4.7 million fixed-line subscribers and more than 30 million cellular subscribers.[235][236] There are 200industrial parks along with specialised parks such asTechnology Park Malaysia andKulim Hi-Tech Park.[237]Fresh water is available to over 95% of the population, withground water accounting for 90% of the freshwater resources.[238][239] Although rural areas have been the focus of great development, they still lag behind areas such as the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia.[240] The telecommunication network, although strong in urban areas, is less available to the rural population.[235]
Malaysia's energy infrastructure sector is largely dominated byTenaga Nasional, the largestelectric utility company in Southeast Asia. Customers inPeninsular Malaysia are connected to electricity through theNational Grid.[241] The other two electric utility companies in the country areSarawak Energy andSabah Electricity.[242] In 2013, Malaysia's total power generation capacity was over 29,728megawatts. Total electricity generation was 140,985.01GWh and total electricity consumption was 116,087.51 GWh.[243]Energy production in Malaysia is largely based on oil and natural gas, owing to Malaysia's oil and natural gas reserves, which are the fourth largest in theAsia-Pacific region.[244]
Population density (person per km2) in 2010The percentage distribution of Malaysian population by ethnic group based on 2010 census
According to the Malaysian Department of Statistics, the country's population was 32,447,385 in 2020,[245] making it the42nd most populated country. According to a 2012 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.54 percent per year. Malaysia has an average population density of 96 people per km2, ranking it116th in the world for population density. People within the 15–64age group constitute 69.5 percent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 24.5 percent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 6.0 percent. In 1960, when the first official census was recorded in Malaysia, the population was 8.11 million. 91.8 percent of the population are Malaysian citizens.[246]
Malaysian citizens are divided along local ethnic lines, with 69.7 percent consideredbumiputera.[247] The largest group of bumiputera areMalays, who are defined in the constitution asMuslims who practise Malay customs and culture. They play a dominant role politically.[248] Bumiputera status is also accorded to the non-Malay indigenous groups of Sabah and Sarawak: which includesDayaks (Iban,Bidayuh,Orang Ulu),Kadazan-Dusun,Melanau,Bajau and others. Non-Malay bumiputeras make up more than half of Sarawak's population and over two-thirds of Sabah's population.[249][250] There are also indigenous or aboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the peninsular, where they are collectively known as theOrang Asli.[251] Laws over who gets bumiputera status vary between states.[252]
There are also two other non-Bumiputera local ethnic groups. 22.8 percent of the population areMalaysian Chinese, while 6.8 percent areMalaysian Indian.[247] The local Chinese have historically been more dominant in the business community. Local Indians are mostly ofTamil descent.[253][254]Malaysian citizenship is not automatically granted to those born in Malaysia, but is granted to a child born of two Malaysian parents outside Malaysia. Dual citizenship is not permitted.[255] Citizenship in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo are distinct from citizenship in Peninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes. Every citizen is issued a biometric smart chipidentity card known asMyKad at the age of 12 and must carry the card at all times.[256]
The population is concentrated on Peninsular Malaysia,[257] where 20 million out of approximately 28 million Malaysians live.[54] 70 per cent of the population is urban.[21] Due to the rise in labour-intensive industries,[258] the country is estimated to have over 3 million migrant workers; about 10 per cent of the population.[259] Sabah-based NGOs estimate that out of the 3 million that make up the population of Sabah, 2 million are illegal immigrants.[260] Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 171,500. Of this population, approximately 79,000 are from Burma, 72,400 from the Philippines, and 17,700 from Indonesia. Malaysian officials are reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007, and Malaysia employsRELA, a volunteer militia with a history of controversies, to enforce its immigration law.[261]
Dominant religious confessions in Malaysia according to2020 census:[262] Dark green: Muslim majority > 50% Light green: Muslim plurality < 50% Blue: Christian majority > 50%
The constitution grants freedom of religion, while establishing Islam as the "religion of the Federation".[263][264] According to the Population and Housing Census 2020 figures, ethnicity and religious beliefs correlate highly. Approximately 63.5% of the population practiseIslam, 18.7% practiseBuddhism, 9.1%Christianity, 6.1%Hinduism and 1.3% practiseConfucianism,Taoism and other traditionalChinese religions. 2.7% declared no religion or practised other religions or did not provide any information.[245] The states ofSarawak,Penang and the federal territory ofKuala Lumpur have non-Muslim majorities.[265][266]
Sunni Islam of theShafi'i school ofjurisprudence is the dominant branch ofIslam in Malaysia,[267][268] while 18% arenondenominational Muslims.[269] The Malaysian constitution strictly defines what makes a "Malay", defining Malays as those who are Muslim, speak Malay regularly, practise Malay customs, and lived in or have ancestors from Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore.[175] Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 83.6% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism (3.4%) and Christianity (11.1%), along with small Muslim populations in areas like Penang. The majority of the Indian population follows Hinduism (86.2%), with a significant minority identifying as Christians (6.0%) or Muslims (4.1%). Christianity is the predominant religion of the non-Malaybumiputera community (46.5%), while 40.4% identify as Muslims.[245]
Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions ofSyariah Courts (i.e. Shariah courts) in matters concerning their religion. The Islamic judges are expected to follow the Shafi'i legal school of Islam, which is the mainmadh'hab of Malaysia.[267] The jurisdiction of Syariah courts is limited to Muslims in matters such asmarriage,inheritance,divorce,apostasy,religious conversion, custody and limited Islamic criminal law. No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Syariah courts, which have a similar hierarchy to thecivil courts. The civil courts do not hear matters related to Islamic practices.[270]
English remains an activesecond language, with its use allowed for some official purposes under the National Language Act of 1967.[278] In Sarawak, English is an official state language alongside Malay.[279][280][281] Historically, English was the de facto administrative language; Malay became predominant after the 1969 race riots (13 May incident).[282]Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English, is a form of English derived fromBritish English. Malaysian English is widely used in business, along withManglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay, Chinese, andTamil influences. The government discourages the use of non-standard Malay but has no power to issue compounds or fines to those who use what is perceived as improper Malay on their advertisements.[283][284]
Many other languages are used in Malaysia, which contains speakers of 137 living languages.[285] Peninsular Malaysia contains speakers of 41 of these languages.[286] The native tribes of East Malaysia have their own languages which are related to, but easily distinguishable from, Malay.Iban is the main tribal language in Sarawak whileDusunic andKadazan languages are spoken by the natives in Sabah.[287] Chinese Malaysians predominantly speak Chinese dialects from thesouthern part of China. The more commonChinese varieties in the country areMandarin,Cantonese,Hokkien, and so on.[288] TheTamil language is used predominantly by the majority of Malaysian Indians.[289] A small number of Malaysians haveEuropean ancestry and speakcreole languages, such as the Portuguese-basedMalaccan Creoles,[290] and the Spanish-basedChavacano language.[291]
Malaysia operates an efficient and widespreadtwo-tier healthcare system, consisting of auniversal healthcare system and a co-existing private healthcare system; provided by highly subsidized healthcare through its extensive network of public hospitals and clinics.[292] TheMinistry of Health is the main provider of healthcare services to the country's population.[293] Malaysia's healthcare system is considered to be among the most developed in Asia, which contributes to its thrivingmedical tourism industry.[294]
In 2021, the principal cause of death among Malaysian adults wascoronary artery disease, representing 17% of the medically certified deaths in 2020—being followed bypneumonia; which accounted for 11% of the deaths.[301]Transport accidents are considered a major health hazard, as Malaysia, relative to its population, has one of thehighest traffic fatality rates in the world.[302]Smoking is also considered a major health issue across the country.[303]
The education system of Malaysia features a non-compulsory kindergarten education followed by six years of compulsory primary education and five years of optional secondary education.[304] Schools in the primary education system are divided into two categories: national primary schools, which teach in Malay (i.e.:Sekolah Kebangsaan Sungai Binjai,SK Bukit Tiu), and vernacular schools, which teach in Chinese or Tamil (i.e.:SJK(C) Pin Hwa 2,SJK(T) Bandar Mentakab).[305] Secondary education (i.e.:Sura National High,Kajang High School) is conducted for five years. In the final year of secondary education, students sit for theMalaysian Certificate of Education examination.[306] Since the introduction of thematriculation programme in 1999, students who completed the 12-month programme in matriculation colleges can enroll in local universities. However, in the matriculation system, only 10 percent of places are open to non-bumiputera[jargon] students.[307]
Malaysia has a multi-ethnic, multicultural, and multilingual society. Substantial influence exists fromChinese andIndian culture, dating back to when foreign trade began. Other cultural influences include thePersian,Arabic, andBritish cultures. Due to the structure of the government, coupled with thesocial contract theory, there has been minimalcultural assimilation of ethnic minorities.[308] Some cultural disputes exist between Malaysia and neighbouring countries, notablyIndonesia.[309]
In 1971, the government created a "National Cultural Policy", defining Malaysian culture. It stated that Malaysian culture must be based on the culture of the indigenous peoples of Malaysia, that it may incorporate suitable elements from other cultures, and that Islam must play a part in it.[310] It also promoted the Malay language above others.[311] This government intervention into culture has caused resentment among non-Malays who feel their cultural freedom was lessened. Both Chinese and Indian associations have submitted memorandums to the government, accusing it of formulating an undemocratic culture policy.[310]
A craftsman makingbatik.Malaysian batik is usually patterned with floral motifs with light colouring.
Traditional Malaysian art was mainly centred on the areas of carving, weaving, and silversmithing.[312] Traditional art ranges from handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of the Malay courts. Common artworks included ornamentalkris,beetle nut sets, and wovenbatik andsongket fabrics. Indigenous East Malaysians are known for their wooden masks.[175] Each ethnic group have distinct performing arts, with little overlap between them. However, Malay art does show some North Indian influence due to the historical influence of India.[313]
Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in theKelantan-Pattani region with influences from India, China, Thailand, and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion instruments,[313] the most important of which is thegendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of traditional drums.[314] Drums and other traditional percussion instruments and are often made from natural materials.[314] Music is traditionally used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and occasions such as a harvest.[313] It was once used as a form of long-distance communication.[314] In East Malaysia,gong-based musical ensembles such asagung andkulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings.[315] These ensembles are also common in neighbouring regions such as inMindanao in the Philippines,Kalimantan in Indonesia and Brunei.[315]
Malaysia has a strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival of writing and continues today. Each of the Malay Sultanates created their own literary tradition, influenced by pre-existing oral stories and by the stories that came with Islam.[316] The first Malay literature was in the Arabic script. The earliest known Malay writing is on theTerengganu stone, made in 1303.[175] Chinese and Indian literature became common as the number of speakers increased in Malaysia, and locally produced works based on languages from those areas began to be produced in the 19th century.[316] English has also become a common literary language.[175] In 1971, the government took the step of defining the literature of different languages. Literature written in Malay was called "the national literature of Malaysia", literature in otherbumiputera languages was called "regional literature", while literature in other languages was called "sectional literature".[311] Malay poetry is highly developed, and uses many forms. TheHikayat form is popular, and thepantun has spread from Malay to other languages.[316]
Malaysia's cuisine reflects the multi-ethnic makeup of its population.[319] Many cultures from within the country and from surrounding regions have greatly influenced the cuisine. Much of the influence comes from the Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran cultures,[175] largely due to the country being part of the ancientspice route.[320] The cuisine is very similar to that of Singapore and Brunei,[200] and also bears resemblance to Filipino cuisine.[175] The different states have varied dishes,[200] and often the food in Malaysia is different from the original dishes.[254]
Sometimes food not found in its original culture is assimilated into another; for example, Chinese restaurants in Malaysia often serve Malay dishes.[321] Food from one culture is sometimes also cooked using styles taken from another culture,[200] For example,sambal belacan (shrimp paste) are commonly used as ingredients by Chinese restaurants to create thestir fried water spinach (kangkung belacan).[322] This means that although much of Malaysian food can be traced back to a certain culture, they have their own identity.[320] Rice is a staple food and an important constituent of the country's culture.[323] Chili is commonly found in local cuisine, although this does not necessarily make them spicy.[319]
Malaysia's main newspapers are owned by the government and political parties in the ruling coalition,[324][325] although some major opposition parties also have their own, which are openly sold alongside regular newspapers. A divide exists between the media in the two halves of the country. Peninsular-based media gives a low priority to news from the East and often treats the eastern states as colonies of the peninsula.[326] As a result of this, the East Malaysia region of Sarawak launchedTV Sarawak as internet streaming beginning in 2014, and as TV station on 10 October 2020[327] to overcome the low priority and coverage of Peninsular-based media and to solidify the representation of East Malaysia.[328] The media have been blamed for increasing tension between Indonesia and Malaysia, and giving Malaysians a bad image of Indonesians.[329] The country has Malay, English, Chinese, and Tamil daily newspapers.[326] Kadazandusun and Bajau news are available only via TV broadcast Berita RTM.[330] Written Kadazan news was once included in publications such asThe Borneo Post, the Borneo Mail, theDaily Express, and theNew Sabah Times, but publication has ceased with the newspaper or as a section.[331][332]
Freedom of the press is limited, with numerous restrictions on publishing rights and information dissemination.[333] The government has previously tried to crack down on opposition papers before elections.[325] In 2007, a government agency issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting speeches made by opposition leaders,[334] a move condemned by politicians from the oppositionDemocratic Action Party.[335] Sabah, where all tabloids but one are independent of government control, has the freest press in Malaysia.[326] Laws such as thePrinting Presses and Publications Act have also been cited as curtailing freedom of expression.[336]
Malaysians observe several holidays and festivities throughout the year. Some are federally gazettedpublic holidays and some are observed by individual states. Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religious groups, and the main holiday of each major group has been declared a public holiday. The most observed national holiday isHari Merdeka (Independence Day) on 31 August, commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya in 1957.[175]Malaysia Day on 16 September commemorates federation in 1963.[337] Other notable national holidays areLabour Day (1 May) and the King's birthday (first week of June).[175]
Muslim holidays are prominent as Islam is the state religion;Hari Raya Puasa (also calledHari Raya Aidilfitri, Malay forEid al-Fitr),Hari Raya Haji (also calledHari Raya Aidiladha, Malay forEid al-Adha),Maulidur Rasul (birthday of the Prophet), and others being observed.[175] Malaysian Chinese celebrate festivals such asChinese New Year and others relating to traditional Chinese beliefs.Wesak Day is observed and celebrated by Buddhists. Hindus in Malaysia celebrateDeepavali, the festival of lights,[338] whileThaipusam is a religious rite which sees pilgrims from all over the country converge at theBatu Caves.[339] Malaysia's Christian community celebrates most of the holidays observed by Christians elsewhere, most notably Christmas and Easter. In addition to this, the Dayak community in Sarawak celebrate a harvest festival known asGawai,[340] and the Kadazandusun community celebrateKaamatan.[341] Despite most festivals being identified with a particular ethnic or religious group, celebrations are universal. In a custom known as "open house" Malaysians participate in the celebrations of others, often visiting the houses of those who identify with the festival.[237]
The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953, and received recognition by the IOC in 1954. It first participated in the1956 Melbourne Olympic Games. The council was renamed theOlympic Council of Malaysia in 1964, andhas participated in all but one Olympic games since its inception. The largest number of athletes ever sent to the Olympics was 57 to the1972 Munich Olympic Games.[351] Besides the Olympic Games, Malaysia also participates in theParalympic Games.[352] Malaysia has competed at theCommonwealth Games since 1950 as Malaya, and 1966 as Malaysia, and the games were hosted in Kuala Lumpur in 1998.[353][354]
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