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Malay grammar is the body of rules that describe the structure of expressions in theMalay language (Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore) andIndonesian (Indonesia and Timor Leste). This includes the structure ofwords,phrases,clauses andsentences. In Malay and Indonesian, there are four basic parts of speech:nouns,verbs,adjectives, and grammatical function words (particles). Nouns and verbs may be basic roots, but frequently they arederived from other words by means of prefixes and suffixes.

For clarity, ⟨ê⟩ is used to denote schwa /ə/, while ⟨e⟩ is used to denote /e/, as both Malay and Indonesian intheir orthography do not distinguish both phonemes and are written as ⟨e⟩ (Indonesian also uses accentless ⟨e⟩ for /ə/ and ⟨é⟩ for /e/ instead as inJavanese).

Malay is anagglutinative language, and new words are formed by three methods. New words can be created by attaching affixes onto a root word (affixation), formation of acompound word (composition), or repetition of words or portions of words (reduplication). However, the Malay morphology has been simplified significantly, resulting on extensive derivational morphology but also having minimal inflectional morphology. Because of this, Malay and Indonesian are together classified as partiallyisolating languages, like other languages spoken in the mainland Southeast Asia.^[1]

Root words are either nouns or verbs, which can be affixed to derive new words, e.g.,masak (to cook) yieldsmêmasak (cooks, as a verb),mêmasakkan (cooks for),dimasak (cooked) as well aspêmasak (a cook),masakan (a meal, cookery). Many initial consonants undergo mutation when prefixes are added: e.g.,sapu (sweep) becomespênyapu (broom);panggil (to call) becomesmêmanggil (calls/calling),tapis (to sift) becomesmênapis (sifts).

Other examples of the use ofaffixes to change the meaning of a word can be seen with the wordajar (teach):

• ajar = teach
• ajar-an = teachings
• bêl-ajar = to learn, to study (the object is not necessary)
• mêng-ajar = to teach
• di-ajar = being taught (intransitive)
• di-ajar-kan = being taught (transitive)
• mêmpêl-ajar-i = to learn, to study (the object is necessary)
• dipêl-ajar-i = being studied
• pêl-ajar = student
• pêng-ajar = teacher
• pêl-ajar-an = subject, education
• pêng-ajar-an = lesson, moral of story
• pêmbêl-ajar-an = learning
• têr-ajar = taught (accidentally)
• têrpêl-ajar = well-educated, literally "been taught"
• bêrpêl-ajar-an = is educated, literally "has education"

There are four types of affixes, namelyprefixes (in Malay:awalan),suffixes (akhiran),circumfixes (apitan) andinfixes (sisipan). These affixes are categorised into noun affixes, verb affixes, and adjective affixes.

Noun affixes are affixes that form nouns upon addition to root words. The following are examples of noun affixes:

The prefixpêr- drops itsr beforer, l and frequently beforep, t, k. In some words it ispeng-; though formally distinct in both phonologically and functionally, these are treated as variants of the same prefix in Malay grammar books.

Similarly,verb affixes are attached to root words to form verbs. In Malay, there are:

Adjective affixes are attached to root words to form adjectives:

In addition to these affixes, Malay also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English. For example,maha-,pasca-,eka-,bi-,anti-,pro- etc.

Reduplication (kata ganda orkata ulang) in the Malay language is a very productive process. It is mainly used for forming plurals, but sometimes it may alter the meaning of the whole word, or change the usage of the word in sentences.

There are four types of words reduplication in Malay, namely

• Full reduplication (kata ganda penuh (Malaysian) orkata ulang utuh (Indonesian) ordwilingga)
• Partial reduplication (kata ganda separa (Malaysian) orkata ulang sebagian (Indonesian) ordwipurwa)
• Rhythmic reduplication (kata ganda berentak (Malaysian) orkata ulang salin suara (Indonesian))
• Reduplication of meaning^{[clarification needed]}

Full reduplication is the complete duplication of the word, separated by a dash (-). For example,buku (book) when duplicated formbuku-buku (books), while the duplicated form ofbatu (stone) isbatu-batu (stones).

Partial reduplication repeats only the initial consonant of the word, such asdêdaunan (leaves) from the worddaun (leaf), andtêtangga (neighbor) from the wordtangga (ladder). The words are usually not separated by spaces or punctuation, and each is considered a single word.

Rhythmic reduplication repeats the whole word, but one or more of its phonemes are altered. For example, the wordgêrak (motion) can be reduplicated rhythmically to formgêrak-gêrik (movements) by altering the vowel. The reduplication can also be formed by altering the consonant, e.g., insayur-mayur (vegetables [bundled for the market]) from the root wordsayur (vegetable/vegetables [what is found on plate]).

Common derivational affixes for nouns arepêng-/pêr-/juru- (actor, instrument, or someone characterized by the root),-an (collectivity, similarity, object, place, instrument),kê-...-an (abstractions and qualities, collectivities),pêr-/pêng-...-an (abstraction, place, goal or result).

Malay does not make use ofgrammatical gender. There are only a few words that use natural gender; the same word used forhe andshe is also used forhis andher. Most of the words that refer to people (family terms, professions, etc.) have a form that does not distinguish between the genders. For example,adik can refer to a younger sibling of any gender. To specify the natural gender of a noun, an adjective must be added:adik lêlaki/adik laki-laki corresponds to "brother" but really means "male younger sibling". There are some words that are gendered. For instance,putêri means "princess" andputêra means "prince"; words like these are usually borrowed from other languages (in this case, Sanskrit).

There is no grammatical plural in Malay. Thusorang may mean either "person" or "people". Plurality is expressed by the context, or the usage of words such as numerals,bêbêrapa "some", orsêmua "all" that express plurality. In many cases, it simply isn't relevant to the speaker. Because of this, both Malay and Indonesian effectively hasgeneral number, similar to many languages of East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Reduplication is commonly used to emphasize plurality. However, reduplication has many other functions. For example,orang-orang means "(all the) people", butorang-orangan means "scarecrow". Similarly, whilehati means "heart" or "liver",hati-hati is a verb meaning "to be careful". Also, not all reduplicated words are inherently plural, such asorang-orangan "scarecrow/scarecrows",biri-biri "a/some sheep" andkupu-kupu "butterfly/butterflies", these are all words in their own rights and have nothing to do with plurality, as is the case with some animal names such as "kura-kura" for tortoise and "laba(h)-laba(h)" for spider. Some reduplication is rhyming rather than exact, as insayur-mayur "(all sorts of) vegetables".

Distributive affixes derive mass nouns that are effectively plural:pohon "tree",pêpohonan "flora, trees";rumah "house",pêrumahan "housing, houses";gunung "mountain",pê(r)gunungan "mountain range, mountains".

Quantity words come before the noun:sêribu orang "a thousand people",bêbêrapa pê(r)gunungan "a series of mountain ranges",bêbêrapa kupu-kupu "some butterflies".

Personal pronouns are not a separate part of speech, but a subset of nouns. They are frequently omitted, and there are numerous ways to say "you". Commonly the person's name, title, title with name, or occupation is used ("does Johnny want to go?", "would Madam like to go?"); kin terms, includingfictive kinship, are extremely common. However, there are also dedicated personal pronouns, as well as the demonstrative pronounsini "this, the" anditu "that, the".

From the perspective of a European language, Malay boasts a wide range of different pronouns, especially to refer to the addressee (the so-called second person pronouns). These are used to differentiate several parameters of the person they are referred to, such as the social rank and the relationship between the addressee and the speaker.

This table shows an overview over the most commonly and widely used pronouns of the Malay language:

Notable among the personal-pronoun system is a distinction betweentwo forms of "we":kita (you and me, you and us) andkami (us, but not you). The distinction is increasingly confused in colloquial Indonesian, but not in Malay.

Saya andaku are the two major forms of "I";saya (or its literally/archaic formsahaya) is used when speaking to some family members, elders, new acquaintances, and when speaking in a formal setting, whereas aku is used with friends. Depending on how important the usage of the appropriate pronoun is to both speakers,aku can be used when speaking to new acquaintances without being interpreted as disrespectful.

Sa(ha)ya may also be used for "we", but in such cases it is usually used withsêkalian orsêmua "all"; this form is ambiguous as to whether it corresponds with exclusivekami or inclusivekita. Less common arehamba "slave",hamba tuan, hamba datok (all extremely humble),beta (a royal addressing oneselves),patik (a commoner addressing a royal),kami (royal or editorial "we"),kita,têman, andkawan (lit. "friend").

There are three common forms of "you",anda (polite),kamu (familiar), andkalian "y'all" (commonly used as a plural form of you, slightly informal).Anda is used in formal contexts like in advertisements and business or to show respect (though terms liketuan "sir" and other titles also work the same way), whilekamu is used in informal situations.Anda sêkalian orAnda semua are polite plural.Engkau orang —contracted tokau orang orkorang—is used to address subjects plural in the most informal context.

Êngkau (commonly shortened tokau) andhang (dialectical) are used to social inferiors or equals,awak to equals, andêncik (contracted tocik before a name) is polite, traditionally used for people without title. The compoundsmakcik andpakcik are used with village elders one is well acquainted with or the guest of.

Tuanku (fromtuan aku, "my lord") is used by commoners to address royal members.

The common word for "s/he" isia, which has the object and emphatic/focused formdia; consequentlyia has been recently used to refer to animals.Bêliau ("his/her Honour") is respectful. As with the English "you", names and kin terms are extremely common. Colloquially,dia orang (or its contracted formdiorang) is commonly used for the plural "they" whereasmereka "they",mereka itu, ororang itu "those people" are used in writing.

Baginda – corresponding to "his/her Majesty/Highness" – is used for addressing royal figures and religious prophets, especially in Islamic literature.

There are a large number of other words for "I" and "you", many regional, dialectical, or borrowed from local languages.Saudara (masc., "you") orsaudari (fem., pl.saudara-saudara /saudari-saudari /saudara-saudari) show utmost respect.Daku ("I") anddikau ("you") are poetic or romantic.Indonesiangua ("I") andlu "you" (both from Hokkien) are slang and extremely informal. In the dialect of the northern states of Malaysia – Kedah, Penang, Perlis and Perak (northern) typicallyhang is used as "you" (singular), whilehampa orhangpa are used for the plural "you". In the state ofPahang, two variants for "I" and "you" exist, depending on location: in East Pahang, aroundPekan,kome is used as "I" while in the west aroundTemerloh,koi,keh orkah is used.Kome is also used in Kuala Kangsar,Perak, but instead it means "you". This allegedly originated from the fact that both the royal families of Pahang and Perak (whose seats are in Pekan andKuala Kangsar respectively) were descendants of the same ancient line.

The informal pronounsaku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, andkita are indigenous to Malay.

Aku, kamu, êngkau, andia have short possessiveenclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphaticdia:meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".

There are alsoproclitic forms ofaku andêngkau,ku- andkau-. These are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun:

Ku-dengar raja itu punya pênyakit sopak.Aku tahu ilmu tabib.Aku-lah mêngobati dia.

"It has come to my attention that the king has a skin disease. I am skilled in medicine.I will cure him."

Hereku-verb is used for a general report,aku verb is used for a factual statement, and emphaticaku-lah mêng-verb (≈ "I am the one who...") for focus on the pronoun.^[4]

There are twodemonstrative pronouns in Malay.Ini "this, these" is used for a noun generally near to the speaker.Itu "that, those" is used for a noun generally far from the speaker. Either may sometimes be equivalent to English "the". There is no difference between singular and plural. However, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by aini oritu. The wordyang "which" is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or enquiries about something/someone, like English "this one" or "that one".

Another distinguishing feature of Malay is its use ofmeasure words, also calledclassifiers (penjodoh bilangan). In this way, it is similar to many other languages of Asia, includingChinese,Japanese,Vietnamese,Thai,Burmese, andBengali.

Measure words are found in English, such astwo grains of sand ora loaf of bread where*two sands and*a bread would be ungrammatical. The wordsatu reduces tosê-, as it does in other compounds:

Less common are

Measure words are not necessary just to say "a":burung "a bird, birds". Usingsê- plus a measure word is closer to English "one" or "a certain":

Ada sêekor burung yang pandai bêrcakap

"There was a (certain) bird that could talk"

Verbs are notinflected for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as "yesterday") or by other tense indicators, such assudah "already" andbelum "not yet". On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denotevoice or intentional and accidentalmoods, and it has many exceptions for its derivation. Some of these affixes are obsolete in colloquial speech.

Examples of these include the prefixes:

• mêng- (agent focus, frequently but erroneously called "active voice", for AVO word order);
• di- (patient focus, frequently but erroneously called "passive voice", for OVA word order);
• pêr- (causative, also notice that when mixed withmêng- prefix formsmêmper- instead ofmêmêr-, latter informally);
• bêr- (stative or habitual; intransitive VS order); and
• têr- (involitive actions, such as those that are involuntary, sudden, or accidental, for VA = VO order).

The suffixes include:

• -kan (causative orbenefactive); and
• -i (locative, repetitive, or exhaustive).

The circumfixes include:

• bêr-...-an (plural subject,reciprocity);
• bêr-…-kan (instrumental); and
• kê-...-an (unintentional or potential action or state).

A special case of one prefix combined with reduplication include:

• …-mêng-… (reciprocity).

The prefixmêng- (andpêng-) changes depending to the first consonant of the root. The variantmêngê- is used before monosyllabic roots.

The prefixesbêr- andtêr- change tobê- andtê- when preceding initialr-, or preceding the first syllable which contains-êr- (ber- -an +pergi "to go" →bêpêrgian). The prefixesber- andpêr- (but notter-) preserves an irregular-l- when prefixed to the wordajar "to teach".

Here is the example of derived forms ofduduk:

• duduk "to sit down"
• mêndudukkan "to sit someone down, give someone a seat, to appoint"
• mênduduki "to sit on, to occupy"
• didudukkan "to be given a seat, to be appointed"
• diduduki "to be sat on, to be occupied"
• têrduduk "to sink down, to come to sit"
• kêdudukan "to be situated", "position"
• bêrsekedudukan "to cohabit"
• bêrkedudukan "to have position"
• pênduduk "resident"

Often the derivation changes the meaning of the verb rather substantially:

• tinggal "to reside, to live (in a place)"
• meninggali "to reside, to live (in a place)"
• bertinggal "to leave a message"
• mêninggal to die, to pass away (short form ofmeninggal dunia, "to pass on from the world")
• mêninggalkan "to leave (a place)", "to leave behind/abandon" (someone/something)
• ditinggalkan "to be left behind, to be abandoned"
• têrtinggal "to be left behind"
• kêtinggalan "to miss (a bus, train)" (and thus "to be left behind")
• pêninggalan "heritage"
• tinggalan "remnant"

Forms intêr- andkê-...-an are often equivalent to adjectives in English. In some verbs which derives from adjectives, likemêmanjang "to lengthen"; when affixed withter- (têrpanjang "longest") coincides with the superlative prefixter-, effectively has the meaning "longest" instead of "(accidentally) lengthened", the meaning is served by reaffixed forms liketêrpanjangi ortêrpanjangkan.

Four words are used for negation in Malay, namelytidak,bukan,jangan, andbelum.

• Tidak (not) negates verbs and adjectives.
• Bukan (be-not) is used in the negation of a noun.

For example:

• Jangan (do not!) is used for negating imperatives or advising against certain actions. For example,

Jangan tinggalkan saya di sini!

Don't leave me here!

• Bêlum is used with the sense that something has not yet been accomplished or experienced. In this sense,bêlum can be used as a negative response to a question.

Anda sudah pêrnah ke Indonesia, orAnda sudah pêrnah ke Indonesiabêlum?

Have you ever been to Indonesia before, (or not)?

Bêlum, saya masihbêlum pernah pergi ke Indonesia

No, I havenot yet been to Indonesia

Orang itubêlum têrbiasa tinggal di Indonesia

That person isnot usedyet to living in Indonesia.

16 types of function words in Malay perform a grammatical function in a sentence.^{[further explanation needed][6]} Amongst these are conjunctions, interjections, prepositions, negations and determiners.

There are grammatical adjectives in Malay.Stative verbs are often used for the purpose as well. Adjectives are always placed after the noun that they modify. Hence, "rumah saya" means "my house", while "saya rumah" means "I am a house".

To form superlatives, the prefixtêr- is used, although alternatively there are some adverbs formingperiphrastic superlatives likepaling "the most".

Stative verbs,demonstrative determiners, andpossessive determiners follow the noun they modify.

Malay does not have agrammatical subject in the sense that English does^[7] (traditional grammars, however, have a concept of grammatical subjects).^[8] In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both anagent and anobject, these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb.^[7] OVA, commonly but inaccurately called "passive", is the basic and most common word order.

Either the agent or object or both may be omitted. This is commonly done to accomplish one of two things:

1) Adding a sense of politeness and respect to a statement or question

For example, a polite shop assistant in a store may avoid the use of pronouns altogether and ask:

2) Agent or object is unknown, not important, or understood from context

For example, a friend may enquire as to when you bought your property, to which you may respond:

Ultimately, the choice of voice and therefore word order is a choice between actor and patient and depends quite heavily on the language style and context.

Word order is frequently modified forfocus or emphasis, with the focused word usually placed at the beginning of the clause and followed by a slight pause (a break inintonation):

• Saya pêrgi kê pasar kê(l)marin "I went to the market yesterday" – neutral, or with focus on the subject.
• Kê(l)marin saya pêrgi kê pasar "Yesterday I went to the market" – emphasis on yesterday.
• Kê pasar saya pêrgi, kê(l)marin "To the market I went yesterday" – emphasis on where I went yesterday.
• Pêrgi kê pasar, saya, kê(l)marin "To the market went I yesterday" – emphasis on the process of going to the market.

The last two occur more often in speech than writing.

• Malay grammar
• Austronesian grammars

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