Mecca is generally considered "the fountainhead and cradle ofIslam".[8][9] Mecca is revered in Islam as the birthplace of theIslamic prophetMuhammad. TheHira cave atop theJabal al-Nur ("Mountain of Light"), just outside the city, is where Muslims believe theQuran was first revealed to Muhammad.[10] Visiting Mecca for theḤajj is an obligation upon all able Muslims. TheGreat Mosque of Mecca, known as theMasjid al-Haram, is home to theKa'bah, believed by Muslims to have been built byAbraham andIshmael. It isIslam's holiest site and the direction of prayer (qibla) for all Muslims worldwide.[11]
Under the Saudi government, Mecca is governed by the Mecca Regional Municipality, a municipal council of 14 locally elected members headed by the mayor (calledAmin in Arabic) appointed by theSaudi government. In 2015, the mayor of the city was Osama bin Fadhel Al-Barr;[20][21] as of January 2022[update], the mayor is Saleh Al-Turki.[22] The City of Meccaamanah, which constitutes Mecca and the surrounding region, is the capital of the Mecca Province, which includes the neighbouring cities of Jeddah andTa'if, even though Jeddah is considerably larger in population than Mecca.PrinceKhalid bin Faisal Al Saud has been the provincial governor of the province since 16 May 2007.[23]
Etymology
Mecca has been referred to by many names. As with many Arabic words, itsetymology is obscure.[24] Widely believed to be a synonym forMakkah, it is said to be more specifically the early name for the valley located therein, while Muslim scholars generally use it to refer to the sacred area of the city that immediately surrounds and includes theKa'bah.[25][26]
The Quran refers to the city asBakkah inSurahAl Imran (3), verse 96: "Indeed the firstHouse [of worship], established for mankind was that at Bakkah". This is said to have been the name of the city at the time ofIbrahim and it is also transliterated asBaca, Baka, Bakah, Bakka, Becca andBekka, among others.[27][28][29] It was a name for the city in the ancient world.[30]
Makkah, Makkah al-Mukarramah andMecca
Makkah is the official transliteration used by the Saudi government and is closer to the Arabic pronunciation.[31][32] The government adoptedMakkah as the official spelling in the 1980s, but it is not universally known or used worldwide.[31] The full official name isMakkah al-Mukarramah (Arabic:مكة المكرمة,lit. 'Makkah the Honored').[31]Makkah is used to refer to the city in the Quran inSurahAl-Fath (48), verse 24.[24][33]
The wordMecca in English has come to be used to refer to any place that draws large numbers of people, and because of this some English-speaking Muslims have come to regard the use of this spelling for the city as offensive.[31] Nonetheless,Mecca is the familiar form of the English transliteration for the Arabic name of the city.
Macoraba, another ancient city nameClaudius Ptolemy says was withinArabia Felix, was also claimed to be Mecca.[34] Some studies have questioned this association.[35] Many etymologies have been proposed: the traditional one is that it is derived from theOld South Arabian root M-K-R-B which means "temple".[35]
Other names
Another name used for Mecca in the Quran is at 6:92 where it is calledUmm al-Qurā[36] (أُمّ ٱلْقُرَى, meaning "Mother of all Settlements").[33] The city has been called several other names in both the Quran andahadith. Another name used historically for Mecca isTihāmah.[37] According to an Islamic suggestion, another name for Mecca,Fārān, is synonymous with theDesert of Paran mentioned in theOld Testament atGenesis 21:21.[38] Arab and Islamic tradition holds that the wilderness of Paran, broadly speaking, is theTihamah coastal plain and the site where Ishmael settled was Mecca.[38]Yaqut al-Hamawi, the 12th-century Syrian geographer, wrote thatFārān was "an arabized Hebrew word, one of the names of Mecca mentioned in the Torah."[39]
History
Prehistory
In 2010, Mecca and the surrounding area became an important site forpaleontology with respect toprimate evolution, with the discovery of aSaadanius fossil.Saadanius is considered to be a primate closely related to the common ancestor of theOld World monkeys andapes. The fossil habitat, near what is now the Red Sea in western Saudi Arabia, was a damp forest area between 28 million and 29 million years ago.[40] Paleontologists involved in the research hope to find further fossils in the area.[41]
Early history (up to 6th century CE)
The early history of Mecca is still largely shrouded by a lack of clear sources. The city lies in the hinterland of the middle part of western Arabia of which there are sparse textual or archaeological sources available.[42] This lack of knowledge is in contrast to both the northern and southern areas of western Arabia, specifically the Syro-Palestinian frontier and Yemen, where historians have various sources available such as physical remains of shrines, inscriptions, observations by Greco-Roman authors, and information collected by church historians. The area ofHejaz that surrounds Mecca was characterized by its remote, rocky, and inhospitable nature, supporting only meagre settled populations in scattered oases and occasional stretches of fertile land. The Red Sea coast offered no easily accessible ports and the oasis dwellers and bedouins in the region were illiterate.[42]
While one individual has suggested that Mecca’s population at the time of Muhammad was around 550,[43] research published by Binimad Al-Ateeqi in 2020 shows that the population was closer to 10,000 individuals, a figure extrapolated from data taken from historical records about theBattle of Badr and othermilitary expeditions, emigrants to bothAbyssinia andMadinah, and Muhammad’s own household. Al-Ateeqi, a researcher fromKuwait who has written extensively about the early history of Mecca, also makes deductions about the numbers of women, children, servants, and slaves living in Mecca at the time, pointing out that some wealthy individuals, such asAbdullah ibn Jud’an, had as many as 100 slaves.[44]
The first clear reference to Mecca in non-Islamic literature appears in 741 CE, long after the death of Muhammad, in the Byzantine-Arab Chronicle, though here the author places the region in Mesopotamia rather than the Hejaz.[45]
Possible earlier mentions are not unambiguous. The Greek historianDiodorus Siculus writes about Arabia in the 1st century BCE in his workBibliotheca historica, describing a holy shrine: "And a temple has been set up there, which is very holy and exceedingly revered by all Arabians".[46] Claims have been made this could be a reference to theKa'bah in Mecca. However, the geographic location Diodorus describes is located in northwest Arabia, around the area ofLeuke Kome, within the formerNabataean Kingdom and the Roman province ofArabia Petraea.[47][48]
Ptolemy lists the names of 50 cities in Arabia, one going by the name of Macoraba. There has been speculation since 1646 that this could be a reference to Mecca. Historically, there has been a general consensus in scholarship that Macoraba mentioned byPtolemy in the 2nd century CE is indeed Mecca, but more recently, this has been questioned.[49][50] Bowersock favors the identity of the former, with his theory being that "Macoraba" is the word "Makkah" followed by the aggrandizingAramaic adjectiverabb (great). The Roman historianAmmianus Marcellinus also enumerated many cities of Western Arabia, most of which can be identified. According to Bowersock, he did mention Mecca as "Geapolis" or "Hierapolis", the latter one meaning "holy city" potentially referring to the sanctuary of theKaaba.[51]Patricia Crone, from theRevisionist school of Islamic studies on the other hand, writes that "the plain truth is that the name Macoraba has nothing to do with that of Mecca [...] if Ptolemy mentions Mecca at all, he calls it Moka, a town inArabia Petraea".[52]
Procopius' 6th century statement that theMa'add tribe possessed the coast of western Arabia between theGhassanids and theHimyarites of the south supports the Arabic sources tradition that associatesQuraysh as a branch of the Ma'add and Muhammad as a direct descendant of Ma'add ibn Adnan.[53][54]
HistorianPatricia Crone has cast doubt on the claim that Mecca was a major historical trading outpost.[55][56] However, other scholars such as Glen W. Bowersock disagree and assert that Mecca was a major trading outpost.[57][58] Crone later on disregarded some of her theories.[59] She argues that Meccan trade relied on skins, hides, manufactured leather goods, clarified butter, Hijazi woollens, and camels. She suggests that most of these goods were destined for the Roman army, which is known to have required colossal quantities of leather and hides for its equipment.
Mecca is mentioned in the following early Quranic manuscripts:
Codex Ṣanʿāʾ DAM 01–29.1, folio 29a, radiocarbon dated between 633 and 665 CE.
Codex Arabe 331, folio 40 v, radiocarbon dated between 652 and 765 CE.
The earliest Muslim inscriptions are from the Mecca-Ta'if area.[60]
Islamic narrative
Mecca mentioned in Quranic manuscript Codex Arabe 331 (Q48:24)
A 1787Ottoman Turkish map ofAl-Haram Mosque, and related religious sites, such as Jabal al-Nour
In the Islamic view, the beginnings of Mecca are attributed to theBiblical figures,Adam,Abraham,Hagar andIshmael. It was Adam himself who built the first God's house in Mecca according to a heavenly prototype but this building was destroyed in theNoahic Flood.[42] The civilization of Mecca is believed to have started afterIbrāhīm (Abraham) left his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wifeHājar (Hagar) in the valley atAllah's command.[citation needed] Some people from the Yemeni tribe ofJurhum settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing the first, on Ibrahim's advice. At least one man of the Jurhum helped Ismāʿīl and his father to construct or according to Islamic narratives, reconstruct, theKa'bah ('Cube'),[61][25][62] which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region.[63][64]
Muslims see the mention of a pilgrimage at theValley of the Bakha in theOld Testament chapterPsalm 84:3–6 as a reference to Mecca, similar to the Quran at Surah3:96 In the 'āl ʿimrān, a commentary on theSamaritanmidrashic chronology of the Patriarchs, of unknown date but probably composed in the 10th century CE, it is claimed that Mecca was built by the sons ofNebaioth, the eldest son of Ismāʿīl orIshmael.[65][66][67]
Thamudic inscriptions
SomeThamudic inscriptions which were discovered in the southJordan contained names of some individuals such asʿAbd Mekkat (عَبْد مَكَّة, "Servant of Mecca").[68]
There were also some other inscriptions which contained personal names such asMakki (مَكِّي, "Makkan, of Makkah"), but Jawwad Ali from theUniversity of Baghdad suggested that there's also a probability of a tribe named "Makkah".[69]
Under the Quraish
Sometime in the 5th century, the Ka'bah was a place of worship for the deities ofArabia's pagan tribes. Mecca's most importantpagandeity wasHubal, which had been placed there by the rulingQuraish tribe.[70][71] and remained until theConquest of Mecca byMuhammad.[citation needed] In the 5th century, the Quraish took control of Mecca, and became skilled merchants and traders. In the 6th century, they joined the lucrativespice trade, since battles elsewhere were divertingtrade routes from dangerous sea routes to more secure overland routes. TheByzantine Empire had previously controlled theRed Sea, butpiracy had been increasing.[citation needed] Another previous route that ran through thePersian Gulf via theTigris andEuphrates rivers was also being threatened by exploitations from theSassanid Empire, and was being disrupted by theLakhmids, theGhassanids, and theRoman–Persian Wars. Mecca's prominence as a trading center also surpassed the cities ofPetra andPalmyra.[72][73] The Sassanids however did not always pose a threat to Mecca, as in 575 CE they protected it from a Yemeni invasion, led by its Christian leaderAbraha. The tribes of southern Arabia asked the Persian kingKhosrau I for aid, in response to which he came south to Arabia with foot-soldiers and a fleet of ships near Mecca.[74]
By the middle of the 6th century, there were three major settlements in northernArabia, all along the south-western coast that borders the Red Sea, in a habitable region between the sea and the Hejaz mountains to the east. Although the area around Mecca was completely barren, it was the wealthiest of the three settlements with abundant water from the renownedZamzam Well and a position at the crossroads of majorcaravan routes.[75]
The harsh conditions and terrain of the Arabian peninsula meant a near-constant state of conflict between thelocal tribes, but once a year they would declare a truce and converge upon Mecca in an annual pilgrimage. Up to the 7th century, this journey was intended for religious reasons by the pagan Arabs to pay homage to their shrine, and to drinkZamzam. However, it was also the time each year that disputes would be arbitrated, debts would be resolved, and trading would occur at Meccan fairs. These annual events gave the tribes a sense of common identity and made Mecca an important focus for the peninsula.[76]
The Year of the Elephant (570 CE)
The "Year of the Elephant" is the name inIslamic history for the year approximately equating to 570–572CE, when, according to Islamic sources such asIbn Ishaq, Abraha descended upon Mecca, riding an elephant, with a large army after building acathedral atSan'aa, namedal-Qullays in honor of theNegus ofAxum. It gained widespread fame, even gaining attention from theByzantine Empire.[77] Abraha attempted to divert the pilgrimage of the Arabs from the Ka'bah to al-Qullays, effectively converting them to Christianity. According to Islamic tradition, this was the year ofMuhammad's birth.[77] Abraha allegedly sent a messenger named Muhammad ibn Khuza'i to Mecca andTihamah with a message that al-Qullays was both much better than other houses of worship and purer, having not been defiled by the housing of idols.[77] When Muhammad ibn Khuza'i got as far as the land ofKinana, the people of the lowland, knowing what he had come for, sent a man ofHudhayl called ʿUrwa bin Hayyad al-Milasi, who shot him with an arrow, killing him. His brother Qays who was with him, fled to Abraha and told him the news, which increased his rage and fury and he swore to raid the Kinana tribe and destroy the Ka'bah. Ibn Ishaq further states that one of the men of theQuraysh tribe was angered by this, and going to Sana'a, entering the church at night and defiling it; widely assumed to have done so bydefecating in it.[78][79]
Abraha marched upon theKa'bah with a large army, which included one or morewar elephants, intending to demolish it. When news of the advance of his army came, the Arab tribes of Quraysh, Kinanah,Khuza'a and Hudhayl united in the defense of the Ka'bah and the city. A man from theHimyarite Kingdom was sent by Abraha to advise them that Abraha only wished to demolish the Ka'bah and if they resisted, they would be crushed.Abdul Muttalib told the Meccans to seek refuge in the hills while he and some members of the Quraysh remained within the precincts of the Kaaba. Abraha sent a dispatch inviting Abdul-Muttalib to meet with Abraha and discuss matters. When Abdul-Muttalib left the meeting he was heard saying: "The Owner of this House is its Defender, and I am sure he will save it from the attack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House."[80][81]
Abraha eventually attacked Mecca. However, the lead elephant, known as Mahmud,[82] is said to have stopped at the boundary around Mecca and refused to enter. It has been theorized that an epidemic such as bysmallpox could have caused such a failed invasion of Mecca.[83] The reference to the story inQuran is rather short. According to the 105thSurah of the Quran,Al-Fil, the next day, a dark cloud of small birds sent by Allah appeared. The birds carried small rocks in their beaks, and bombarded the Ethiopian forces, and smashed them to a state like that of eaten straw.[84]
Economy
Camel caravans, said to have first been used by Muhammad's great-grandfather, were a major part of Mecca's bustling economy. Alliances were struck between the merchants in Mecca and the local nomadic tribes, who would bring goods – leather, livestock, and metals mined in the local mountains – to Mecca to be loaded on the caravans and carried to cities inShaam andIraq.[85] Historical accounts also provide some indication that goods from other continents may also have flowed through Mecca. Goods from Africa and the Far East passed through en route to Syria including spices, leather, medicine, cloth, and slaves; in return Mecca received money, weapons, cereals and wine, which in turn were distributed throughout Arabia.[citation needed] The Meccans signed treaties with both the Byzantines and theBedouins, and negotiated safe passages for caravans, giving them water and pasture rights. Mecca became the center of a loose confederation of client tribes, which included those of theBanu Tamim. Other regional powers such as theAbyssinians, Ghassanids, and Lakhmids were in decline leaving Meccan trade to be the primary binding force in Arabia in the late 6th century.[76]
Muhammad wasborn in Mecca in 570 CE, and thus Islam has been inextricably linked with it ever since. He was born into the faction ofBanu Hashim in the ruling tribe ofQuraysh. It was in the nearby mountain cave of Hira onJabal al-Nour that Muhammad began receiving divinerevelations from God through thearchangelJibreel in 610 CE, according to Islamic tradition. Advocating his form ofAbrahamic monotheism against Meccan paganism, and after enduring persecution from the pagan tribes for 13 years, Muhammad emigrated (hijrah) in 622 CE with his companions, theMuhajirun, to Yathrib (later renamedMedina). The conflict between the Quraysh and the Muslims is accepted to have begun at this point. Overall, Meccan efforts to annihilate Islam failed and proved to be costly and unsuccessful.[citation needed] During theBattle of the Trench in 627 CE, the combined armies of Arabia were unable to defeat Muhammad's forces (as the trench surrounding Muhammad's forces protected them from harm and a storm was sent to breach the Quraysh tribe).[86] In 628 CE, Muhammad and his followers wanted to enter Mecca for pilgrimage, but were blocked by the Quraysh. Subsequently, Muslims and Meccans entered into theTreaty of Hudaybiyyah, whereby the Quraysh and their allies promised to cease fighting Muslims and their allies and promised that Muslims would be allowed into the city to perform the pilgrimage the following year. It was meant to be a ceasefire for 10 years; however, just two years later, theBanu Bakr, allies of the Quraish, violated the truce by slaughtering a group of the Banu Khuza'ah, allies of the Muslims. Muhammad and his companions, now 10,000 strong, marched into Mecca and conquered the city. The pagan imagery was destroyed by Muhammad's followers and the locationIslamized and rededicated to the worship ofAllah alone. Mecca was declared the holiest site in Islam ordaining it as the center of Muslim pilgrimage (Hajj), one of the Islamic faith'sFive Pillars.
Muhammad then returned to Medina, after assigning 'Attab ibn Asid as governor of the city. His other activities in Arabia led to the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of Islam.[72][86] Muhammad died in 632 CE. Within the next few hundred years, the area under the banner of Islam stretched from North Africa into Asia and parts of Europe. As theIslamic realm grew, Mecca continued to attract pilgrims from all across theMuslim world and beyond, as Muslims came to perform the annual Hajj pilgrimage. Mecca also attracted a year-round population of scholars, pious Muslims who wished to live close to the Kaaba, and local inhabitants who served the pilgrims. Due to the difficulty and expense of the Hajj, pilgrims arrived by boat at Jeddah, and came overland, or joined the annual caravans from Syria or Iraq.[citation needed]
Medieval and pre-modern times
Mecca was never the capital of any of theIslamic states. Muslim rulers did contribute to its upkeep, such as during the reigns of 'Umar (r. 634–644 CE) and 'Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656 CE) when concerns of flooding caused the caliphs to bring in Christian engineers to build barrages in the low-lying quarters and construct dykes and embankments to protect the area around the Kaaba.[72]
Muhammad's return to Medina shifted the focus away from Mecca and later even further away when 'Ali, the fourth caliph, took power and choseKufa as his capital. TheUmayyad Caliphate moved the capital toDamascus in Syria and theAbbasid Caliphate toBaghdad, in modern-day Iraq, which remained the center of the Islamic Empire for nearly 500 years. Mecca re-entered Islamic political history during theSecond Fitna, when it was held byAbdullah ibn az-Zubayr and the Zubayrids.[citation needed] The city was twice besieged by the Umayyads in683 CE and692 CE, and for some time thereafter, the city figured little in politics, remaining a city of devotion and scholarship governed by various other factions. In 930 CE, Mecca wasattacked and sacked byQarmatians, amillenarianShi'aIsma'iliMuslim sect led byAbū-Tāhir Al-Jannābī and centered in eastern Arabia.[87] TheBlack Deathpandemic hit Mecca in 1349 CE.[88]
Ibn Battuta's description of Mecca
One of the most famous travelers to Mecca in the 14th century was a Moroccan scholar and traveler,Ibn Battuta. In hisrihla (account), he provides a vast description of the city. Around the year 1327 CE or 729 AH, Ibn Battuta arrived at the holy city. Immediately, he says, it felt like a holy sanctuary, and thus he started the rites of the pilgrimage. He remained in Mecca for three years and left in 1330 CE. During his second year in the holy city, he says his caravan arrived "with a great quantity of alms for the support of those who were staying in Mecca and Medina". While in Mecca, prayers were made for (not to) the King of Iraq and also forSalaheddin al-Ayyubi, Sultan of Egypt and Syria at the Ka'bah. Battuta says the Ka'bah was large, but was destroyed and rebuilt smaller than the original. According to Ibn Battuta, the original Kaaba, prior to the conquest of Makkah by the Prophet, contained images of angels and prophets including Jesus (Isa in Islamic tradition), his mother Mary (Maryam in Islamic tradition), and many others - Ibn Battuta however states these were all destroyed by the Prophet in the year of victory. Battuta describes the Ka'bah in his time as an important part of Mecca due to the fact that many people make the pilgrimage to it. Battuta describes the people of the city as being humble and kind, and also willing to give a part of everything they had to someone who had nothing. The inhabitants of Mecca and the village itself, he says, were very clean. There was also a sense of elegance to the village.[89]
In 1517, the then Sharif of Mecca, Barakat bin Muhammad, acknowledged the supremacy of theOttoman Caliph but retained a great degree of local autonomy.[90] In 1803 the city was captured by theFirst Saudi State,[91] which held Mecca until 1813, destroying some of the historic tombs and domes in and around the city. The Ottomans assigned the task of bringing Mecca back under Ottoman control to their powerfulKhedive (viceroy) andWali of Egypt,Muhammad Ali Pasha. Muhammad Ali Pasha successfully returned Mecca to Ottoman controlin 1813. In 1818, the Saud were defeated again but survived and founded theSecond Saudi State that lasted until 1891 and led on to the present country of Saudi Arabia. In 1853, SirRichard Francis Burton undertook the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina disguised as a Muslim. Although Burton was certainly not the first non-Muslim European to make theHajj (Ludovico di Varthema did this in 1503),[92] his pilgrimage remains one of the most famous and documented of modern times. Mecca was regularly hit bycholeraoutbreaks. Between 1830 and 1930, cholera broke out among pilgrims at Mecca 27 times.[93]
Modern history
Mecca in 1910
Hashemite Revolt and subsequent control by the Sharifate of Mecca
InWorld War I, the Ottoman Empire was at war with theAllies. It had successfully repulsed an attack onIstanbul in theGallipoli campaign and on Baghdad in theSiege of Kut. The British intelligence officerT. E. Lawrence conspired with the Ottoman governor,Hussain bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca to revolt against the Ottoman Empire and it was the first city captured by his forces in the1916 Battle of Mecca. Sharif's revolt proved a turning point of the war on the eastern front. Hussein declared a new state, theKingdom of Hejaz, declaring himself the Sharif of the state and Mecca his capital. News reports in November 1916 via contact inCairo with returningHajj pilgrims, stated that with the Ottoman Turkish authorities gone, the Hajj of 1916 was free of the previous massive extortion and monetary demands made by the Turks who were agents of the Ottoman government.[94]
Saudi Arabian conquest and modern history
Following the1924 Battle of Mecca, the Sharif of Mecca was overthrown by the Saud family, and Mecca was incorporated into Saudi Arabia.[95] Under Saudi rule, much of the historic city has been demolished as a result of the Saudi government fearing these sites might become sites of association in worship besides Allah (shirk). The city has been expanded to include several towns previously considered to be separate from the holy city and now is just a few kilometers outside the main sites of the Hajj, Mina, Muzdalifah and Arafat. Mecca is not served by any airport, due to concerns about the city's safety. It is instead served by theKing Abdulaziz International Airport inJeddah (approx. 70 km away) internationally and theTa'if Regional Airport (approx. 120 km away) for domestic flights.[citation needed]
The city today is at the junction of the two most important highways in all of the Saudi Arabian highway system, Highway 40, which connects the city to Jeddah in the west and the capital,Riyadh andDammam in the east and Highway 15, which connects it toMedina,Tabuk and onward toJordan in the north andAbha andJizan in the south. The Ottomans had planned to extend their railway network to the holy city, but were forced to abandon this plan due to their entry into theFirst World War. This plan was later carried out by the Saudi government, which connected the two holy cities of Medina and Mecca with the modernHaramain high-speed railway system which runs at 300 km/h (190 mph) and connects the two cities via Jeddah, King Abdulaziz International Airport andKing Abdullah Economic City near Rabigh within two hours.[citation needed]
Theharam area of Mecca, in which the entry of non-Muslims is forbidden, is much larger than that of Medina.
On 20 November 1979, two hundred armed dissidents led byJuhayman al-Otaibi,seized the Grand Mosque, claiming the Saudi royal family no longer represented pure Islam and that theMasjid al-Haram and the Ka'bah, must be held by those of true faith. The rebels seized tens of thousands of pilgrims as hostages and barricaded themselves in the mosque. The siege lasted two weeks, and resulted in several hundred deaths and significant damage to the shrine, especially theSafa-Marwah gallery. A multinational force was finally able to retake the mosque from the dissidents.[96] Since then, the Grand Mosque has been expanded several times, with many other expansions being undertaken in the present day.
Under Saudi rule, it has been estimated that since 1985, about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished.[14][97] It has been reported that there are now fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad. Some important buildings that have been destroyed include the house ofKhadijah, the wife of Muhammad, the house ofAbu Bakr, Muhammad's birthplace and the Ottoman-eraAjyad Fortress.[98] The reason for much of the destruction of historic buildings has been for the construction of hotels, apartments, parking lots, and other infrastructure facilities forHajj pilgrims.[97][99]
Mecca has been the site of several incidents and failures of crowd control because of the large numbers of people who come to make the Hajj.[100][101][102] For example, on 2 July 1990, a pilgrimage to Mecca ended in tragedy when the ventilation system failed in a crowded pedestrian tunnel and 1,426 people were either suffocated or trampled to death in astampede.[103] On 24 September 2015, 700 pilgrimswere killed in a stampede atMina during the stoning-the-Devil ritual at Jamarat.[104]
2027 total solar eclipse
Mecca will experience atotal solar eclipse on Monday, 2 August 2027, for a duration of 5 minutes and 8 seconds.[105]
Significance in Islam
TheHajj involves pilgrims visiting Al-Haram Mosque, but mainly camping and spending time in the plains ofMina andArafah
Mecca holds an important place in Islam and is considered the holiest city in all branches of the religion. The city derives its importance from the role it plays in theHajj and 'Umrah and for its status as the birthplace of Muhammad.
Masjid al-Haram
TheMasjid al-Haram is the site of two of the most important rites of both the Hajj and of the Umrah, the circumambulation around the Ka'bah (tawaf) and the walking between the two mounts of Safa and Marwa (sa'ee). The masjid is also the site of theZamzam Well. According to Islamic tradition, a prayer in the masjid is equal to 100,000 prayers in any other masjid around the world.[106]
There is a difference of opinion between Islamic scholars upon who first built theKa'bah, some believe it was built by theangels while others believe it was built byAdam. Regardless, it was built several times before reaching its current state. The Ka'bah is also the common direction of prayer (qibla) for all Muslims. The surface surrounding the Ka'bah on which Muslims circumambulate it is known as the Mataf.
The Black Stone is a stone, considered by scientists to be ameteorite or of similar origin and believed by Muslims to be of divine origin. It is set in the eastern corner of the Ka'bah and it isSunnah to touch and kiss the stone. The area around the stone is generally always crowded and guarded by policemen to ensure the pilgrims' safety. In Islamic tradition, the stone was sent down from Jannah (Paradise) and used to build the Ka'bah. It used to be a white stone (and was whiter than milk). Because of the worldly sins of man, it slowly changed color to black over the years after it was brought down to Earth.
This is the stone that Ibrahim (Abraham) stood on to build the higher parts of the Ka'bah. It contains two footprints that are comparatively larger than average modern-day human feet. The stone is raised and housed in a golden hexagonal chamber beside the Ka'bah on the Mataf plate.The stone inside the casing is square shaped and measures 40 cm (16 in) in length and width, and 20 cm (7.9 in) in height.[107] It used to be enclosed by a structure called theMaqsurat Ibrahim which was covered by asitara: an ornamental, embroidered curtain that was replaced annually.[108] Currently, it is placed inside a golden-metal enclosure. The outer casing has changed a number of times over the years; historic photographs show that the arch of the Banu Shaybah Gate stood next to it.[109]
Muslims believe that in the divine revelation to Muhammad, the Quran, Allah describes the mountains of Safa and Marwah as symbols of His divinity. Walking between the two mountains seven times, four times from Safa to Marwah and three times from Marwah interchangeably, is considered a mandatory pillar (rukn) ofUmrah.
Panorama of theal-Masjid al-Haram, also known as the Grand Mosque of Mecca, during the Hajj pilgrimage
Hajj and 'Umrah
The Hajj pilgrimage, also called the greater pilgrimage, attracts millions of Muslims from all over the world and almost triples Mecca's population for one week in the twelfth and final Islamic month ofDhu al-Hijjah. In 2019, the Hajj attracted 2,489,406 pilgrims to the holy city.[110] The 'Umrah, or the lesser pilgrimage, can be done at anytime during the year. Every adult, healthy Muslim who has the financial and physical capacity to travel to Mecca must perform the Hajj at least once in a lifetime. Umrah, the lesser pilgrimage, is not obligatory, but is recommended in the Quran.[111] In addition to theMasjid al-Haram, pilgrims also must visit the nearby towns ofMina/Muna,Muzdalifah andMount Arafat for various rituals that are part of the Hajj.
Jabal al-Nour
Jabal al-Nour, the mountain atop which is the Hira cave, where it is believed Muhammad received his first revelation.
Jabal al-Nour (or Jabal an-Nur) is a mountain believed by Muslims to have been the place where Muhammad spent his time away from the bustling city of Mecca in seclusion.[112][113] The mountain is located on the eastern entrance of the city and is the highest point in the city at 642 meters (2,106 feet).
Hira'a Cave
Situated atop Jabal al-Nour, this is the cave where Muslims believe Muhammad received the first revelation from Allah through the archangelGabriel (Jibril in Islamic tradition) at the age of 40.[112][113]
Geography
Mecca as seen from theInternational Space Station. Haram is visible in the center while Mina is visible in the east.
Mecca is located in theHejaz region, a 200 km (124 mi) wide strip of mountains separating theNafud desert from theRed Sea. The city is situated in a valley with the same name around 70 km (44 mi) east of the port city ofJeddah. Mecca is one of the lowest cities in elevation in the Hejaz region, located at an elevation of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level at 21º23' north latitude and 39º51' east longitude. Mecca is divided into 34 districts.
The city centers on the al-Haram area, which contains the Masjid al-Haram. The area around the mosque is the old city and contains the most famous district of Mecca, Ajyad. The main street that runs toal-Haram is the Ibrahim al-Khalil Street, named afterIbrahim. Traditional, historical homes built of local rock, two to three stories long are still present within the city's central area, within view of modern hotels and shopping complexes. The total area of modern Mecca is over 1,200 km2 (460 sq mi).[114]
Elevation
Mecca is at an elevation of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level, and approximately 70 km (44 mi) inland from the Red Sea.[75] It is one of the lowest in theHejaz region, although some mountain peaks in Mecca reach 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.
Topography
The city center lies in a corridor between mountains, which is often called the "Hollow of Mecca". The area contains the valley of al-Taneem, the valley of Bakkah and the valley of Abqar.[72][115] This mountainous location has defined the contemporary expansion of the city.
Due to Mecca's climatic conditionswater scarcity has been an issue throughout its history. In pre-modern Mecca, the city used a few chief sources of water. Among them were local wells, such as theZamzam Well, that produced generally brackish water. Finding a sustainable water source to supply Mecca's permanent population and the large number of annual pilgrims was an undertaking that began in the Abbasid era under the auspices ofZubayda, the wife of the caliphHarun ar-Rashid.[c] She donated funds for the deepening of Zamzam Well and funded a massive construction project likely costing 1.75 milliongold dinars. The project encompassed the construction of an undergroundaqueduct from theArabic:عين حنين,romanized: ʿAyn Ḥunayn,lit. 'Spring ofHunayn' and smaller water sources in the area to Mecca in addition to the construction of a waterworks onMount Arafat calledArabic:عين زبيدة,romanized: ʿAyn Zubayda,lit. 'Spring ofZubayda' using a separate conduit to connect it to Mecca and the Masjid al-Haram. Over time however the system deteriorated and failed to fulfil its function. Thus in 1245 CE, 1361 CE, 1400 CE, 1474 CE, and 1510 CE different rulers invested into extensive repairs of the system. In 1525 CE due to the system's troubles persisting however theOttoman sultanSuleiman the Magnificent began a construction project to rebuild the aqueduct in its entirety, the project took until 1571 CE to be completed. Its water quality was greatly lacking during the 19th century until a restoration and cleaning project by Osman Pasha began.[42]
Another source which sporadically provided water was rainfall which was stored by the people in small reservoirs orcisterns. According to al-Kurdī, there had been 89 floods by 1965. In the last century, the most severe flood was that of 1942. Since then, dams have been built to ameliorate this problem.[115]
Mecca features ahot desert climate (Köppen:BWh), in three differentplant hardiness zones: 10, 11 and 12.[118] Like most Saudi Arabian cities, Mecca retains warm to hot temperatures even in winter, which can range from 19 °C (66 °F) at night to 30 °C (86 °F) in the afternoon. Summer temperatures are extremely hot and consistently break the 40 °C (104 °F) mark in the afternoon, dropping to 30 °C (86 °F) in the evening, but humidity remains relatively low, at 30–40%. Rain usually falls in Mecca in small amounts scattered between November and January, with heavy thunderstorms also common during the winter. Occasional summer rainfall in recent years has been associated with the northward movement of theIntertropical Convergence Zone.
Pilgrims are the driving force of Mecca's economy.
The Meccan economy has been heavily dependent on pilgrimages coming for Umrah and Hajj.[122] Income generated through pilgrims not only powers the Meccan economy but has historically had far-reaching effects on the economy of the entireArabian Peninsula. The income was generated in a number of ways. One method was taxing the pilgrims. Taxes were especially increased during theGreat Depression, and many of these taxes existed to as late as 1972. Another way the Hajj generates income is through services to pilgrims. For example, the Saudiflag carrier,Saudia, generates 12% of its income from the pilgrimage. Fares paid by pilgrims to reach Mecca by land also generate income; as do the hotels and lodging companies that house them.[115] The city takes in more than $100 million, while the Saudi government spends about $50 million on services for the Hajj. There are some industries and factories in the city, but Mecca no longer plays a major role inSaudi Arabia's economy, which is mainly based on oil exports.[123] The few industries operating in Mecca include textiles, furniture, and utensils. The majority of the economy is service-oriented.
Nevertheless, many industries have been set up in Mecca. Various types of enterprises that have existed since 1970 in the city includecorrugated iron manufacturing,copper extraction, carpentry,upholstery, bakeries, farming and banking.[115] The city has grown substantially in the 20th and 21st centuries, as the convenience and affordability ofjet travel has increased the number of pilgrims participating in theHajj. Thousands of Saudis are employed year-round to oversee the Hajj and staff the hotels and shops that cater to pilgrims; these workers in turn have increased the demand for housing and services. The city is now ringed by freeways and contains shopping malls and skyscrapers.[124]
Formal education started to be developed in the late Ottoman period continuing slowly into Hashemite times. The first major attempt to improve the situation was made by a Jeddah merchant, Muhammad ʿAlī Zaynal Riḍā, who founded the Madrasat al-Falāḥ in Mecca in 1911–12 that cost £400,000.[115] The school system in Mecca has many public and private schools for both males and females. As of 2005, there were 532public and private schools for males and another 681 public and private schools for female students.[126] The medium of instruction in both public and private schools is Arabic with emphasis on English as asecond language, but some private schools founded by foreign entities such as International schools use the English language as the medium of instruction. Some of these are coeducational while other schools are not. For higher education, the city has only one university,Umm Al-Qura University, which was established in 1949 as a college and became a public university in 1981.
Healthcare is provided by the Saudi government free of charge to all pilgrims. There are ten main hospitals in Mecca:[127]
Ajyad Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى أَجْيَاد)
King Faisal Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْمَلِك فَيْصَل بِحَي ٱلشّشه)
King Abdulaziz Hospital (Arabic:مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْمَلِك عَبْد ٱلْعَزِيْز بِحَي ٱلـزَّاهِر)
Al Noor Specialist Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلنُّوْر ٱلتَّخَصُّصِي)
Hira'a Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى حِرَاء)
Maternity and Children's Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْوِلَادَة وَٱلْأَطْفَال)
King Abdullah Medical City (مَدِيْنَة ٱلْمَلِك عَبْد ٱلله ٱلطِّبِيَّة)
Khulais General Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى خُلَيْص ٱلْعَام)
Al Kamel General Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ٱلْكَامِل ٱلْعَام)
Ibn Sina Hospital (مُسْتَشْفَى ابْن سِيْنَا بِحَدَاء / بَحْرَه)
There are also many walk-in clinics available for both residents and pilgrims. Several temporary clinics are set up during the Hajj to tend to wounded pilgrims.
Mecca is very densely populated. Most long-term residents live in the Old City, the area around theGreat Mosque and many work to support pilgrims, known locally as theHajj industry. 'Iyad Madani, the Saudi Arabian Minister for Hajj, was quoted saying, "We never stop preparing for the Hajj."[128]
Year-round, pilgrims stream into the city to perform the rites of 'Umrah, and during the last weeks of eleventh Islamic month,Dhu al-Qi'dah, on average 2–4 million Muslims arrive in the city to take part in the rites known as Hajj.[129] Pilgrims are from varyingethnicities and backgrounds, mainlySouth and Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa. Many of these pilgrims have remained and become residents of the city. By the 19th century, people ofSouth Asian origin had come to constitute 20% of the population.[130] The Burmese are an older, more established community who number roughly 250,000.[131] Adding to this, the discovery of oil in the past 50 years has brought hundreds of thousands of working immigrants.
Non-Muslims are not permitted to enter Mecca underSaudi law,[18] and using fraudulent documents to do so may result in arrest and prosecution.[132] The prohibition extends toAhmadis, as they are considered non-Muslims.[133] Nevertheless, many non-Muslims and Ahmadis have visited the city as these restrictions are loosely enforced. The first such recorded example of a non-Muslim entering the city is that ofLudovico di Varthema ofBologna in 1503.[134]Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, is said to have visited Mecca[135] in December 1518.[136] One of the most famous wasRichard Francis Burton,[137] who traveled as aQadiriyyaSufi fromAfghanistan in 1853.
Mecca's culture has been affected by the large number of pilgrims that arrive annually, and thus boasts a richcultural heritage. As a result of the vast numbers of pilgrims coming to the city each year, Mecca has become by far the most diverse city in the Muslim world.
Sports
In pre-modern Mecca, the most common sports were impromptu wrestling and foot races.[115]Football is now the most popular sport in Mecca and the kingdom. The city hosts some of the oldest sport clubs in Saudi Arabia, such asAl Wahda FC (established in 1945).King Abdulaziz Stadium is the largest stadium in Mecca with a capacity of 38,000.[139]
Adorning the southern facade of the Masjid al-Haram is theAbraj al-Bait Complex; towering over the Great Mosque, it is a seven-building complex with the central clock tower having a length of 601 m (1,972 feet), making it the world's fourth-tallest building. All seven buildings in the complex also form thethird-largest building by floor area.
TheMecca Gate, known popularly as the Quran Gate, sits on the western entrance of the city, which is the route from Jeddah. Located on Highway 40, it marks the boundary of theHaram area where non-Muslims are prohibited from entering. The gate was designed in 1979 by an Egyptian architect, Samir Elabd, for the architectural firm IDEA Center. The structure is that of a book, representing the Quran, sitting on arehal, or bookrest.[140]
Communications
Press and newspapers
The first press was brought to Mecca in 1885 byOsman Nuri Pasha, an OttomanWāli. During the Hashemite period, it was used to print the city's official gazette,Al Qibla. The Saudi regime expanded this press into a larger operation, introducing the new Saudi official gazette of Mecca,Umm al-Qurā.[115] Mecca also has its own paper owned by the city,Al Nadwa. However, other Saudi newspapers are also provided in Mecca such as theSaudi Gazette,Al Madinah,Okaz andAl Bilad, in addition to other international newspapers.
Television
Telecommunications in the city were emphasized early under the Saudi reign. KingAbdulaziz pressed them forward as he saw them as a means of convenience and better governance. While underHussein bin Ali, there were about 20 public telephones in the entire city; in 1936, the number jumped to 450, totaling about half the telephones in the country. During that time, telephone lines were extended to Jeddah and Ta'if, but not to the capital,Riyadh. By 1985, Mecca, like other Saudi cities, possessed modern telephone, telex, radio and television communications.[115] Many television stations serve the city area, includingSaudi TV1,Saudi TV2,Saudi TV Sports,Al-Ekhbariya,Arab Radio and Television Network and various cable, satellite and other specialty television providers.
Radio
Limited radio communication was established within the Kingdom under the Hashemites. In 1929, wireless stations were set up in various towns in the region, creating a network that would become fully functional by 1932. Soon afterWorld War II, the existing network was greatly expanded and improved. Since then, radio communication has been used extensively in directing the pilgrimage and addressing the pilgrims. This practice started in 1950, with the initiation of broadcasts on theDay of 'Arafah (9 Dhu al-Hijjah), and increased until 1957, at which time Radio Makkah became the most powerful station in the Middle East at 50 kW. Later, power was increased nine-fold to 450 kW. Music was not immediately broadcast; gradually, folk music was introduced.[115]
Transportation
Air
The only airport near the city is the Mecca East airport, which is not active. Mecca is primarily served byKing Abdulaziz International Airport inJeddah for international and regional connections andTa'if Regional Airport for regional connections. To cater to the large number of Hajj pilgrims, Jeddah Airport has a Hajj Terminal, specifically for use during theHajj season; the terminal can accommodate 47 planes simultaneously while receiving 3,800 pilgrims per hour during the Hajj season.[141]
Roads
3rd Ring Road passing through Kudai Area
Mecca, similar to Medina, lies at the junction of two of the most important highways in Saudi Arabia,Highway 40, connecting it to the important port city ofJeddah in the west and the capital ofRiyadh and the other major port city,Dammam, in the east. The other, Highway 15, connects Mecca to the other holy Islamic city of Medina approximately 400 km (250 mi) in the north and onward toTabuk andJordan. While in the south, it connects Mecca toAbha andJizan.[142][143] Mecca is served by four ring roads, and these are very crowded compared to the three ring roads of Medina. Mecca also has many tunnels.[144]
Rapid transit
Al Masha'er Al Muqaddassah Metro
TheAl Masha'er Al Muqaddassah Metro is a metro line in Mecca opened on 13 November 2010.[145] The 18.1-kilometer (11.2-mile) elevated metro transports pilgrims to the holy sites of 'Arafat,Muzdalifah andMina in the city to reduce congestion on the road and is only operational during theHajj season.[146] It consists of nine stations, three in each of the aforementioned towns.
^Ogle, Vanessa (2015).The Global Transformation of Time: 1870–1950. Harvard University Press. p. 173.ISBN978-0-674-28614-6.Mecca, "the fountainhead and cradle of Islam," would be the center of Islamic timekeeping.
^Nicholson, Reynold A. (2013).Literary History Of The Arabs. Routledge. p. 62.ISBN978-1-136-17016-4.Mecca was the cradle of Islam, and Islam, according to Muhammad, is the religion of Abraham.
^abcdPeters, F. E. (1994).Mecca: a Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 135–136.ISBN978-1-4008-8736-1.OCLC978697983.
^Al-Ateeqi, Binimad (2020).Makkah at the Time of Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH). Independently Published (published 17 March 2020). pp. 146–149.ISBN978-1710858853.
^Holland, Tom; In the Shadow of the Sword; Little, Brown; 2012; p. 471
^Translated by C.H. Oldfather,Diodorus Of Sicily, Volume II, William Heinemann Ltd., London & Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1935, p. 217.
^Jan Retsö, The Arabs in Antiquity (2003), 295–300
^Photius, Diodorus and Strabo (English): Stanley M. Burnstein (tr.), Agatharchides of Cnidus: On the Eritraean Sea (1989), 132–173, esp. 152–3 (§92).)
^Crone, Patricia (1987).Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Princeton University Press. pp. 134–135.ISBN978-1-59333-102-3.
^Morris, Ian D. (2018)."Mecca and Macoraba"(PDF).Al-ʿUṣūr Al-Wusṭā.26:1–60. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 17 November 2018. Retrieved16 November 2018.
^Bowersock, G. W. (2017).The crucible of Islam. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. pp. 53–55.ISBN978-0-674-05776-0.
^Crane, P.Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, 1987, p.136
^Shahid, Irfan (1995).Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, volume 1, part 1. Dumbarton Oaks. p. 163.ISBN978-0-88402-284-8.
^Crone, Patricia;Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam; 1987; p.7
^Holland, Tom (2012).In the Shadow of the Sword; Little, Brown; p. 303
^Abdullah Alwi Haji Hassan (1994).Sales and Contracts in Early Islamic Commercial Law. Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University. pp. 3 ff.ISBN978-969-408-136-6.
^Bowersock, Glen. W. (2017).Bowersock, G. W. (2017). The crucible of Islam. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. pp. 50 ff.
^Crone, Patricia (2007). "Quraysh and the Roman Army: Making Sense of the Meccan Leather Trade".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.70 (1):63–88.doi:10.1017/S0041977X0700002X.JSTOR40378894.S2CID154910558.
^Hoyland, Robert (1997).Seeing Islam as others saw it. Darwin Press. p. 565.ISBN0-87850-125-8.
^G. Lankester Harding & Enno Littman, Some Thamudic Inscriptions from the Hashimite Kingdom of the Jordan (Leiden, Netherlands – 1952), p. 19, Inscription No. 112A
^Jawwad Ali, The Detailed History of Arabs before Islam (1993), Vol. 4, p. 11
^Hawting, G.R. (1980). "The Disappearance and Rediscovery of Zamzam and the 'Well of the Ka'ba'".Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.43 (1): 44–54 (44).doi:10.1017/S0041977X00110523.JSTOR616125.S2CID162654756.
^ʿAbdu r-Rahmān ibn Nāsir as-Saʿdī (23 December 2009)."Tafsir of Surah al Fil – The Elephant (Surah 105)". Translated by Abū Rumaysah. Islamic Network. Archived fromthe original on 20 December 2010. Retrieved15 March 2013.This elephant was called Mahmud and it was sent to Abrahah fromNajashi, the king of Abyssinia, particularly for this expedition.
^Adil, Salahi. (2019).Sahih Muslim (Volume 2) With the Full Commentary by Imam Nawawi. Al-Nawawi, Imam., Muslim, Imam Abul-Husain. La Vergne: Kube Publishing Ltd.ISBN978-0-86037-767-2.OCLC1152068721.
^Nassar, Nahla (2013). "Dar al-Kiswa al-Sharifa: Administration and Production". In Porter, Venetia; Saif, Liana (eds.).The Hajj: collected essays. London: The British Museum. pp. 176–178.ISBN978-0-86159-193-0.OCLC857109543.
^Millison, Andrew (August 2019)."Climate Analogue Examples".Permaculture Design: Tools for Climate Resilience. Oregon State University. Retrieved24 March 2020.
^Dr Harjinder Singh Dilgeer says that Mecca was not banned to non-Muslim till nineteenth century;Sikh History in 10 volumes, Sikh University Press, (2010–2012), vol. 1, pp. 181–182
Bosworth, C. Edmund, ed. (2007). "Mecca".Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Leiden:Koninklijke Brill.
Dumper, Michael R. T.; Stanley, Bruce E., eds. (2008). "Makkah".Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. Santa Barbara, CA:ABC-CLIO.
Rosenthal, Franz;Ibn Khaldun (1967).The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-09797-8.
Watt, W. Montgomery. "Makka – The pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods."Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 6 June 2008
Winder, R.B. "Makka – The Modern City."Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2008. Brill Online. 2008
Mecca Saudi Arabia, inEncyclopædia Britannica Online, by John Bagot Glubb, Assʿad Sulaiman Abdo, Swati Chopra, Darshana Das, Michael Levy, Gloria Lotha, Michael Ray, Surabhi Sinha, Noah Tesch, Amy Tikkanen, Grace Young and Adam Zeidan
_(52501956308).jpg)
_(52501885245).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
