"MLB" redirects here. For the hierarchy of professional baseball leagues affiliated with this league, seeMinor League Baseball. For other uses, seeMLB (disambiguation).
National League (NL), 1876; 149 years ago (1876)[1] American League (AL), 1901; 124 years ago (1901)[2] National Agreement signed, 1903; 122 years ago (1903)[3] Merged into one organization, 2000; 25 years ago (2000)[4]
The Cincinnati Red Stockings were the first professional major league team.
Formed in 1876 and 1901, respectively, the NL and AL cemented their cooperation with the National Agreement in 1903, making MLB the oldest major professional sports league in the world.[17][18] They remained legally separate entities until 2000, when they merged into a single organization led by thecommissioner of baseball.[3][7][19][4] Baseball's first all-professional team, theCincinnati Red Stockings, was founded in 1869.[20][21] The first few decades of professional baseball saw rivalries between leagues, and players often jumped from one team or league to another.[22] These practices were essentially ended by the National Agreement of 1903, in which AL and NL agreed to respect each other's player contracts, including the contentiousreserve clause, which bound players to their teams.
The period from about 1900 to 1920 was thedead-ball era, whenhome runs were rarely hit.[23] Professional baseball was rocked by theBlack Sox Scandal, a conspiracy tofix the1919 World Series. Baseball survived the scandal, albeit with major changes in its governance as the relatively weak National Commission was replaced with a powerful commissioner of baseball with near-unlimited authority over the sport. MLB rose in popularity in the decade following the Black Sox Scandal, and unlike major leagues in other sports, it endured theGreat Depression andWorld War II without any of its teams folding. Shortly after the war,Jackie Robinson brokebaseball's color barrier.
Some teamsmoved to different cities in the 1950s and 1960s. The AL and NL added eight clubs in the 1960s, which started theexpansion era: two in 1961, two in 1962, and four in 1969.[24][25] Player discontent with established labor practices, especially the reserve clause, led to the organization of theMajor League Baseball Players Association tocollectively bargain with the owners, which in turn led to the introduction offree agency in baseball. Modern stadiums withartificial turf surfaces began to change the game in the 1970s and 1980s. Home runs began to dominate the game during the 1990s. In the mid-2000s, media reports disclosed the use ofanabolic steroids among MLB players; a 2006–07 investigation produced theMitchell Report, which found that many players had used steroids and otherperformance-enhancing substances, including at least one player from each team.
In the 1860s, aided by soldiers playing the game in camp during theCivil War, "New York"-style baseball expanded into a national game and spawned baseball's first governing body, theNational Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP). The NABBP existed as an amateur league for 12 years. By 1867, more than 400 clubs were members. Most of the strongest clubs remained those based in the northeastern United States. Forprofessional baseball's founding year, MLB uses the year 1869—when the first professional team, theCincinnati Red Stockings, was established.[30]
A schism developed between professional and amateur ballplayers after the founding of the Cincinnati club. The NABBP split into an amateur organization and a professional organization. TheNational Association of Professional Base Ball Players, often known as the National Association (NA), was formed in 1871.[31] Its amateur counterpart disappeared after only a few years.[32] The modernChicago Cubs andAtlanta Braves franchises trace their histories back to the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players in the 1870s.[33]
In 1876, the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs (later known as theNational League or NL) was established after the NA proved ineffective. The league placed its emphasis on clubs rather than on players. Clubs could now enforce player contracts, preventing players from jumping to higher-paying clubs. Clubs were required to play the full schedule of games instead of forfeiting scheduled games when the club was no longer in the running for the league championship, which happened frequently under the NA. A concerted effort was made to curb gambling on games, which was leaving the validity of results in doubt. The first game in the NL—on Saturday, April 22, 1876 (atJefferson Street Grounds inPhiladelphia)—is often pointed to as the beginning of MLB.[34]
The early years of the NL were tumultuous, with threats from rival leagues and a rebellion by players against the hated "reserve clause", which restricted the free movement of players between clubs. Teams came and went; 1882 was the first season where the league's membership was the same as the preceding season's, and only four franchises survived to see 1900. Competitor leagues formed regularly and also disbanded regularly. The most successful was theAmerican Association (1882–1891), sometimes called the "beer and whiskey league" for its tolerance of the sale of alcoholic beverages to spectators. For several years, the NL and American Association champions met in a postseason championship series—the first attempt at aWorld Series. The two leagues merged in 1892 as a single 12-team NL, but the NL dropped four teams after the 1899 season. This led to the formation of theAmerican League (AL) in 1901 under presidentBan Johnson, and the resulting bidding war for players led to widespread contract-breaking and legal disputes.[35]
The war between the AL and NL caused shock waves throughout the baseball world. At a meeting at the Leland Hotel in Chicago in 1901, the other baseball leagues negotiated a plan to maintain their independence. A new National Association was formed to oversee these minor leagues.[36]
After 1902, the NL, AL, and NA signed a new National Agreement which tied independent contracts to the reserve-clause contracts. The agreement also set up a formal classification system for minor leagues, the forerunner of today's system that was refined byBranch Rickey.[37]
Several other early defunct baseball leagues are considered major leagues, and their statistics and records are included with those of the two modern major leagues. In 1969, the Special Baseball Records Committee of Major League Baseball officially recognized six major leagues: the National League, American League, American Association,Union Association (1884),Players' League (1890), andFederal League (1914–1915).[38] The status of the National Association as a major league has beena point of dispute among baseball researchers; while its statistics are not recognized by Major League Baseball, its statisticsare included with those of other major leagues by some baseball reference websites, such asRetrosheet.[39] Some researchers, includingNate Silver, dispute the major-league status of the Union Association by pointing out that franchises came and went and that the St. Louis club was deliberately "stacked"; the St. Louis club was owned by the league's president and it was the only club that was close to major-league caliber.[40]
The period between 1900 and 1919 is commonly referred to as the "dead-ball era".[23] Games of this era tended to be low-scoring and were often dominated by pitchers, such asWalter Johnson,Cy Young,Christy Mathewson,Mordecai Brown, andGrover Cleveland Alexander. The term also accurately describes the condition of the baseball itself. The baseball used American rather than the modern Australian wool yarn and was not wound as tightly, affecting the distance that it would travel.[45] More significantly, balls were kept in play until they were mangled, soft and sometimes lopsided. During this era, a baseball cost $3,[citation needed] (equivalent to $54 in 2024), and owners were reluctant to purchase new balls. Fans were expected to throw back fouls and (rare) home runs. Baseballs also became stained with tobacco juice, grass, and mud, and sometimes the juice of licorice, which some players would chew for the purpose of discoloring the ball.[46]
Also, pitchers could manipulate the ball through the use of thespitball (In 1921, use of this pitch was restricted to a few pitchers with agrandfather clause). Additionally, many ballparks had large dimensions, such as theWest Side Grounds of the Chicago Cubs, which was 560 feet (170 m) to the center field fence, and theHuntington Avenue Grounds of theBoston Red Sox, which was 635 feet (194 m) to the center field fence, thus home runs were rare, and "small ball" tactics such assingles,bunts,stolen bases, and thehit-and-run play dominated the strategies of the time.[47] Hitting methods like theBaltimore chop were used to increase the number of infield singles.[48] On a successful Baltimore chop, the batter hits the ball forcefully into the ground, causing it to bounce so high that the batter reaches first base before the ball can be fielded and thrown to the first baseman.[49]
The adoption of the foul strike rule—in the NL in 1901, in the AL two years later—quickly sent baseball from a high-scoring game to one where scoring runs became a struggle. Before this rule, foul balls were not counted as strikes: a batter could foul off any number of pitches with no strikes counted against him; this gave an enormous advantage to the batter.[50]
Babe Ruth, often considered the greatest baseball player of all time, in 1920
Baseball's popularity increased in the 1920s and 1930s. The 1920 season was notable for the death ofRay Chapman of theCleveland Indians. Chapman, who was struck in the head by a pitch and died a few hours later, became the only MLB player to die of an on-field injury.[54] Both leagues quickly began to require the use of new, white baseballs whenever a ball became scuffed or dirty, helping bring the "dead-ball" era to an end.
The following year, theNew York Yankees made their first World Series appearance.[55] By the end of the 1930s, the team had appeared in 11 World Series, winning eight of them.[56] Yankees sluggerBabe Ruth had set the single-season home run record in 1927, hitting 60 home runs; breaking his own record of 29 home runs.[57]
Impacted negatively by theGreat Depression, baseball's popularity had begun a downward turn in the early 1930s. By 1932, only two MLB teams turned a profit. Attendance had fallen, due at least in part to a 10% federal amusement tax added to baseball ticket prices. Baseball owners cut theirrosters from 25 men to 23, and even the best players took pay cuts. Team executives were innovative in their attempts to survive, creating night games, broadcasting games live by radio, and rolling out promotions such as free admission for women. Throughout the Great Depression, no MLB teams moved or folded.[58]
The onset of World War II created a shortage of professional baseball players, as more than 500 men left MLB teams to serve in the military. Many of them played on service baseball teams that entertained military personnel in the US or in the Pacific. MLB teams of this time largely consisted of young men, older players, and those with a military classification of4F, indicating mental, physical, or moral unsuitability for service. Men likePete Gray, a one-armed outfielder, got the chance to advance to the major leagues. However, MLB rosters did not include any black players through the end of the war.[59] Black players, many of whom served in the war, were still restricted to playingNegro league baseball.[60]
Wartime blackout restrictions, designed to keep outdoor lighting at low levels, caused another problem for baseball. These rules limited traveling and night games to the point that the 1942 season was nearly canceled.[60] On January 14, 1942, MLB commissionerKenesaw Mountain Landis wrote to U.S. presidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, pleading for the continuation of baseball during the war. Roosevelt responded, "I honestly feel that it would be best for the country to keep baseball going. There will be fewer people unemployed and everybody will work longer hours and harder than ever before. And that means that they ought to have a chance for recreation and for taking their minds off their work even more than before."[61]
With the approval of President Roosevelt, spring training began in 1942 with few repercussions. The war interrupted the careers of stars includingStan Musial,Bob Feller,Ted Williams, andJoe DiMaggio, but baseball clubs continued to field their teams.[62]
Branch Rickey, president and general manager of theBrooklyn Dodgers, began making efforts to introduce a black baseball player to the previously all-white professional baseball leagues in the mid-1940s. He selectedJackie Robinson from a list of promisingNegro league players. After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to anyracial antagonism directed at him, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month (equivalent to $9,675 in 2024). In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s, joining the Dodgers' farm club, theMontreal Royals, for the 1946 season.[63]
The following year, the Dodgers called up Robinson to the major leagues. On April 15, 1947, Robinson made his major league debut at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, including more than 14,000 black patrons. Black baseball fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning the Negro league teams that they had followed exclusively. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspaper writers and white major league players. ManagerLeo Durocher informed his team, "I don't care if he is yellow or black or has stripes like a fucking zebra. I'm his manager and I say he plays."[64]
After a strike threat by some players, NL presidentFord C. Frick and CommissionerHappy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. Robinson received significant encouragement from several major-league players, including Dodgers teammatePee Wee Reese who said, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them."[65] That year, Robinson won the inauguralMajor League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate NL and AL Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).[66]
Less than three months later,Larry Doby became the first African-American to break the color barrier in the American League with the Cleveland Indians.[67] The next year, a number of other black players entered the major leagues.Satchel Paige was signed by the Indians and the Dodgers added star catcherRoy Campanella andDon Newcombe, who was later the first winner of theCy Young Award for his outstanding pitching.[68]
From 1903 to 1952, the major leagues consisted of two eight-team leagues[a] whose 16 teams were located in ten cities, all in the northeastern and mid-western United States: New York City had three teams andBoston, Chicago,Philadelphia, andSt. Louis each had two teams. St. Louis was the southernmost and westernmost city with a major league team. The longest possible road trip, from Boston to St. Louis, took about 24 hours by railroad. After a half-century of stability, starting in the 1950s, teams began to move out of cities with multiple teams into cities that had not had them before. From 1953 to 1955, three teams moved to new cities: theBoston Braves became theMilwaukee Braves, theSt. Louis Browns became theBaltimore Orioles, and thePhiladelphia Athletics became theKansas City Athletics.
The1958 season began to turn Major League Baseball into a nationwide league.Walter O'Malley, owner of theBrooklyn Dodgers and "perhaps the most influential owner of baseball's early expansion era,"[70] moved his team to Los Angeles, marking the first major league franchise on the West Coast.[71] O'Malley also helped persuade the rivalNew York Giants to move west to become the San Francisco Giants. Giants ownerHorace Stoneham had been contemplating a move toMinnesota amid slumping attendance at the agingPolo Grounds ballpark[72] when O'Malley invited him to meetSan Francisco mayorGeorge Christopher in New York.[73] After Stoneham was persuaded to move to California,Time magazine put O'Malley on its cover.[74] MLB commissionerFord C. Frick had opposed the meeting,[75] but the dual moves proved successful for both franchises and for MLB.[71] Had the Dodgers moved out west alone, theSt. Louis Cardinals—1,600 mi (2,575 km) away[76][77]—would have been the closest NL team. Instead, the joint move made West Coast road trips economical for visiting teams.[73] The Dodgers set a single-game MLB attendance record in their first home appearance with 78,672 fans.[73]
In 1961, the firstWashington Senators franchise moved toMinneapolis–Saint Paul to become theMinnesota Twins. Two new teams were added to the American League at the same time: theLos Angeles Angels (who soon moved from downtown L.A. to nearbyAnaheim) and a newWashington Senators franchise. The NL added theHouston Astros and theNew York Mets in 1962. The Astros (known as the "Colt .45s" during their first three seasons) became the first southern major league franchise since theLouisville Colonels folded in 1899 and the first franchise to be located along theGulf Coast. The Mets established a reputation for futility by going 40–120 during their first season of play in the nation's media capital—and by playing only a little better in subsequent campaigns—but in their eighth season (1969) the Mets became the first of the 1960s expansion teams to play in the postseason, culminating in a World Series title over the heavily favored Baltimore Orioles.
Graph showing, by year, the average number of runs per MLB game
By the late 1960s, the balance between pitching and hitting had swung in favor of the pitchers. In 1968—later nicknamed "the year of the pitcher"[78]—Boston Red Sox playerCarl Yastrzemski won the American League batting title with an average of just .301, the lowest in MLB history.[79]Detroit Tigers pitcherDenny McLain won 31 games, making him the only pitcher to win 30 games in a season sinceDizzy Dean in 1934.[80] St. Louis Cardinals starting pitcherBob Gibson achieved an equally remarkable feat by allowing anERA of just 1.12.[81]
Following these pitching performances, in December 1968 the MLB Playing Rules Committee voted to reduce the strike zone from knees to shoulders to top of knees to armpits and lower the pitcher's mound from 15 to 10 inches, beginning in the 1969 season.[82]
In 1973, the American League, which had been suffering from much lower attendance than the National League, sought to increase scoring even further by initiating thedesignated hitter (DH) rule.[83]
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, as baseball expanded, theNational Football League (NFL) had been surging in popularity, making it economical for many of these cities to buildmulti-purpose stadiums instead of single-purpose baseball fields. Because of climate and economic issues, many of these facilities had playing surfaces made fromartificial turf, as well as the oval designs characteristic of stadiums designed to house both baseball and football.[84] This often resulted in baseball fields with relatively morefoul territory than older stadiums. These characteristics changed the nature of professional baseball, putting a higher premium on speed and defense over home-run hitting power since the fields were often too big for teams to expect to hit many home runs and foul balls hit in the air could more easily be caught for outs.[85]
Teams began to be built around pitching—particularly their bullpens—and speed on the basepaths. Artificial surfaces meant balls traveled quicker and bounced higher, so it became easier to hitground balls "in the hole" between the corner and middle infielders. Starting pitchers were no longer expected to throwcomplete games; it was enough for a starter to pitch 6–7 innings and turn the game over to the team'scloser, a position which grew in importance over these decades. As stolen bases increased, home run totals dropped. AfterWillie Mays hit 52 home runs in 1965, only one player (George Foster) reached that mark until the 1990s.[86][87]
During the 1980s, baseball experienced a number of significant changes the game had not seen in years. Home runs were on the decline throughout the decade, with players hitting 40 home runs just 13 times and no one hitting more than 50 home runs in a season for the first time since the dead-ball era (1900–1919).[88][89]
The1981 MLB strike from June 12 until July 31 forced the cancellation of 713 games and resulted in a split-season format.
In 1985,Pete Rose brokeTy Cobb's all-time hits record with his 4,192nd hit. In 1989, Rose received a lifetime ban from baseball as a result of betting on baseball games while manager of theCincinnati Reds. Rose was the first person to receive a lifetime ban from baseball since 1943.[88][90] 1985 also saw thePittsburgh drug trials which involved players who were called to testify before a grand jury in Pittsburgh related to cocaine trafficking.
The1994–95 MLB strike from August 12, 1994, to April 25, 1995, caused the cancellation of over 900 games and the forfeit of the entire 1994 postseason.[91]
Steroid era, further expansion and near contraction
Mark McGwire (batter) was one of several central figures in baseball's steroids scandal.
Routinely in the late 1990s and early 2000s, baseball players hit 40 or 50 home runs in a season, a feat that was considered rare even in the 1980s. It later became apparent that at least some of this power surge was a result of players usingsteroids and other performance-enhancing drugs.
After the 2001 season, the team ownersvoted in favor of contraction. Several MLB teams had been considered for elimination in early talks about contraction, but the Montreal Expos and the Minnesota Twins were the two teams that came closest to folding under the plan. Plans for MLB contraction were halted when the Twins landlord was awarded a court injunction that required the team to play its 2002 home games at their stadium. MLB owners agreed to hold off on reducing the league's size until at least 2006.[92]
The Montreal Expos became the first franchise in over three decades to move when they became theWashington Nationals in 2005. This move left Canada with just one team, but it also returned baseball to Washington after a 33-year absence. This franchise shift, like many previous ones, involved baseball's return to a city that had been previously abandoned.
In recent years, with the advent of technologies such asStatcast and its use ofHawk-Eye starting in 2020[93] as well as with advanced statistics as provided by sites such asFanGraphs and Baseball Savant, MLB has evolved. With the ability to see precise movements of pitchers and batters, teams can assess the mechanics of a player and help them improve. Statcast also provides some features such as tracking the paths of most batted balls, tracking the speed of most batted balls, and tracking theexit velocity of most batted balls. Statcast has allowed for advanced defensive analytics that have not been possible before tracking of players due to how subjective fielding can be.
The rate of teams using adefensive shift has gone up from 13.7% in 2016 to 33.6% in 2022 because advanced statistics support this as an effective way to stop hitters from getting hits.[94] Because the shift reduces the number of balls in play that result in hits and MLB wishes to increase interest in baseball, MLB announced in September 2022 that extreme infield defensive shifts would be banned starting in 2023. To be compliant, there must be two fielders on each side of second base, and those fielders must have both of their feet on the infield dirt at the time the pitch is thrown. If this rule is not followed, the choice of an automatic ball or the outcome of the play is given to the batting team.[95]
The game of baseball has also slowed down significantly due to an increased number of strikeouts and walks—two outcomes that generally take many pitches to complete—and an increased amount of time taken for a pitcher to pitch. In 2020, it took an average of three hours and six minutes to complete a 9 inning game, a number which has steadily ticked up for years.[96] Along with the restrictions on defensive shifts, MLB announced the introduction of apitch clock for the 2023 season and beyond, which is something that has been an experiment in MiLB for a few years. The pitch clock starts at 15 seconds. By the time the clock reaches 10 seconds, the catcher must be in their crouch behind home plate. When the clock reaches 8 seconds, the batter must be in the batter's box and be "alert". Before the 15 second timer reaches 0 seconds, the pitcher must have started their "motion to pitch". If any of these deadlines are violated, the count of the batter will be increased by one ball if the defending team violated the pitch clock or one strike if it is the offensive team who violated the pitch clock. Additionally, in order to prevent circumventing these rules, pickoffs and step-offs — which reset the pitch clock — are only allowed two times total per plate appearance, and if a pitcher attempts a third pickoff and fails to get the runner out, a ball will be called. Similarly, a batter is restricted to calling a timeout (an action which resets the pitch clock) just once per plate appearance.[95]
In 2019, MLB opened an investigation into allegations that members of the2017 World Series championHouston Astrosstole signs from opposing teams using technology during the 2017 and2018 seasons.[97] The Astros were found guilty in January 2020 and while no active players faced any repercussions due to an immunity agreement in exchange for testimony, Astrosgeneral managerJeff Luhnow andfield managerA. J. Hinch were suspended for the entire 2020 season. The Astros were fined the maximum allowable $5 million and forfeited their first- and second-round picks in the 2020 and 2021 drafts.[98] TheBoston Red Sox were also found guilty of stealing signs during the 2017 and 2018 seasons, with the latter season ending in a World Series victory.[99] Red Sox managerAlex Cora was suspended for a year and the team was fined with the loss of a second round draft pick in the 2020 draft as a result.[100]
MLB has discussed preparations for another round of expansion, and several investment groups are vying for a franchise. In 2025, commissioner Rob Manfred said MLB could add two more teams and pursue a geographic realignment of its leagues and divisions.[102]
MLB is governed by theMajor League Baseball Constitution. This document has undergone several incarnations since its creation in 1876.[106] Under the direction of thecommissioner of baseball, MLB hires and maintains the sport'sumpiring crews, and negotiates marketing, labor, andtelevision contracts. MLB maintains a unique, controlling relationship over the sport, including most aspects ofMinor League Baseball. This is due in large part to the 1922U.S. Supreme Court ruling inFederal Baseball Club v. National League, which held that baseball is notinterstate commerce and therefore not subject to federalantitrust law; MLB is the only league that has such a status, and has not faced any competition since this case.[107][108] This ruling has been weakened only slightly in subsequent years.[109] The weakened ruling granted more stability to the owners of teams and has resulted in values increasing at double-digit rates.[109][110] There were several challenges to MLB's primacy in the sport, with notable attempts to establish competing leagues occurring during the late 1800s, from 1913 to 1915 with the short-livedFederal League, and in 1960 with the abortedContinental League.[109]
The chief executive of MLB is the commissioner,Rob Manfred. The deputy commissioner of baseball administration and chief legal officer is Dan Halem. There are seven other executives: executive vice president and general counsel, chief operations and strategy officer, chief communications officer, chief financial officer and senior advisor, executive vice president and chief marketing officer, chief revenue officer, and chief baseball development officer.[111][112]
The multimedia branch of MLB isMLB Advanced Media, which is based in New York City. This branch overseesMLB.com and each of the 30 teams' websites. Its charter states that MLB Advanced Media holdseditorial independence from the league, but it is under the same ownership group and revenue-sharing plan. MLB Productions is a similarly structured wing of the league, focusing on video and traditional broadcast media. MLB also owns 67 percent ofMLB Network, with the other 33 percent split between several cable operators and satellite providerDirecTV.[113] It operates out of studios inSecaucus, New Jersey, and also has editorial independence from the league.[114]
In 1920, the weak National Commission, created to manage relationships between the two leagues, was replaced with the much more powerful commissioner of baseball, who had the power to make decisions for all of professional baseball unilaterally.[3] From 1901 to 1960, theAmerican League andNational League fielded eight teams apiece.
In the 1960s, MLB expansion added eight teams, including the first non-U.S. team (theMontreal Expos). Two teams (theSeattle Mariners and theToronto Blue Jays) were also added in the 1970s. From 1969 through 1993, each league consisted of an East and West Division. In 1993, the National League expanded with two teams, theFlorida Marlins and theColorado Rockies, to even up the number of teams in both leagues. A third division, the Central Division, was formed in each league in 1994. Until 1996, the two leagues met on the field only during theWorld Series and theAll-Star Game. Regular-seasoninterleague play was introduced in 1997.[115]
In March 1995, two new franchises, theArizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays (now known as theTampa Bay Rays), were awarded by MLB, which began play in 1998. This addition brought the total number of franchises to 30. In early 1997, MLB decided to assign one new team to each league: Tampa Bay joined the AL and Arizona joined the NL. The original plan was to have an odd number of teams in each league (15 per league, with five in each division), but in order for every team to be able to play daily, this would have required interleague play to be scheduled throughout the entire season. However, it was unclear at the time if the interleague play would continue after the 1998 season, as it had to be approved bythe players' union. For this and other reasons, it was decided that both leagues should continue to have an even number of teams, and therefore, one existing club would have to switch leagues. TheMilwaukee Brewers agreed in November 1997 to move from the AL to the NL, thereby making the AL a 14-team league and the NL a 16-team league. At the same time, theDetroit Tigers agreed to move from the AL East to the AL Central (to replace Milwaukee), with the expansion Tampa Bay Devil Rays joining the AL East.[116] Later, when theHouston Astros changed ownership prior to the 2013 season, the team moved from the NL Central to the AL West,[117][118] resulting in both leagues having three divisions of five teams each and allowing all teams to have a more balanced schedule.[118] Interleague play is now held throughout the season.[118]
In 2000, the AL and NL were dissolved as legal entities, and MLB became a single, overall leaguede jure, similar to theNational Football League (NFL),National Basketball Association (NBA) andNational Hockey League (NHL)—albeit with two components called "leagues" instead of "conferences". The samerules andregulations are used in both leagues, with one former exception: the AL operated under thedesignated hitter (DH) rule, while the NL did not.[119][120] In 2020, the NL used the designated hitter (DH) rule for the first time.[121] As part of the settlement of the2021–22 Major League Baseball lockout, this change was made permanent, thus making the rules in the two leagues identical.[119][122]
Abaseball uniform is a type of uniform worn bybaseball players and by some non-playing personnel, such asfield managers and coaches. It is worn to indicate the person's role in the game and—through the use of logos, colors, andnumbers—to identify the teams and their players, managers, and coaches.[123]
Traditionally, home uniforms display the team name on the front, while away uniforms display the team's home location. In modern times, however, exceptions to this pattern have become common, with teams using their team name on both uniforms.[124] Most teams also have one or morealternate uniforms, usually consisting of the primary or secondary team color on the vest instead of the usual white or gray.[124] In the past few decadesthrowback uniforms have become popular.[125]
The New York Knickerbockers were the first baseball team to use uniforms, taking the field on April 4, 1849, in pants made of blue wool, whiteflannel shirts (jerseys) andstraw hats.[126][127][128]Caps and other types of headgear have been a part of baseball uniforms from the beginning.[129][130] Baseball teams often wore full-brimmed straw hats or no cap at all since there was no official rule regarding headgear.[131] Under the 1882 uniform rules, players on the same team wore uniforms of different colors and patterns that indicated which position they played. This rule was soon abandoned as impractical.[132]
In the late 1880s,Detroit andWashington of theNational League andBrooklyn of the American Association were the first to wear striped uniforms.[133] By the end of the 19th century, teams began the practice of having two different uniforms, one for when they played at home in their ownbaseball stadium and a different one for when they played away (on the road) at the other team's ballpark.[124] It became common to wear white pants with a white color vest at home and gray pants with a gray or solid (dark) colored vest when away.[124] By 1900, both home and away uniforms were standard across the major leagues.[134]
In June 2021, MLB announced a long-term deal with cryptocurrency exchangeFTX, which includes the FTX logo appearing on umpire uniforms during all games.[135] FTX is MLB's first-ever umpire uniform patch partner.[136] On November 11, 2022, FTX filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. MLB removed the FTX patches from umpires' uniforms before the 2023 season.[137]
Spring training is a series of practices and exhibition games preceding the start of the regular season. Teams hold training camps in the states of Arizona and Florida, where the early warm weather allows teams to practice and play without worrying about the late winter cold. Spring training allows new players to compete for roster and position spots and gives existing team players practice time prior to competitive play. The teams that hold spring training in Arizona are grouped into theCactus League,[138] while teams that hold camp in Florida are known as theGrapefruit League.[139]
Spring training typically lasts almost two months, starting in mid-February and running until just before the season-opening day, traditionally the first week of April. As pitchers benefit from a longer training period, pitchers and catchers begin spring training several days before the rest of the team.[140]
Each team plays 162 games per season. A team's schedule is typically organized into three-gameseries, sets of consecutive games against the same opponent, with occasional two- or four-game series.[141] Postponed games or continuations of suspended games can result in an ad hoc one-game or five-game series. All games of a series are usually hosted by the same team, and multiple series are typically grouped together. I.e, a team usually hosts several series in a row, called a homestand, and follows that by going on several road series in a row. Teams generally play games five to seven days per week. Most games are scheduled at night, although teams will often play day games on Opening Day, holidays, and for the last game of a series to allow teams extra time to travel to their next opponent. Sunday games are generally played during the afternoon, allowing teams to travel to their next destination prior to a Monday night game.
In the current three-division structure, each team plays 13 games against each of its four divisional opponents. It plays one home series and one away series, amounting to six or seven games, against the 10 other teams in its league. A team also plays 3-game series with all the other teams in the other league, alternating home teams each year. Furthermore, each team has an interleague "natural rival" (in some cases its counterpart in the same metro area) with which it plays two home games and two away games each year.
With an odd number of teams in each league (15), it is necessary to have two teams participate in interleague play for most days in the season, except when two or more teams have a day off. Each team plays 20 interleague games throughout the season, usually with just one interleague game per day, but for one weekend in late May, all teams will participate in an interleague series. Before 2013, interleague play was structured differently: there would be one weekend in mid-May and another period consisting typically of the last two-thirds of June in which all teams played interleague games (save for two NL teams each day), and no interleague games were scheduled outside those dates. (Before 2013, season-long interleague play was not necessary, because each league had an even number of teams. In 2013, the Houston Astros moved to the American League, so that each league would have15 teams.) Prior to the adoption of the universal designated hitter in 2022, whether the DH was in use depended on whether the home team was from the AL, where the DH was used, or the NL, where it was not.
Starting with the 2023 season, the scheduling formula changed, with each team playing at least one series against every other team every year. Each team plays 13 games against teams in the same division, with one 3-game and one 4-game series at each park, six or seven games against teams within the same league but in other divisions, with one 3-game (or 4-game series) at each park, and one 3-game series against teams in the other league, alternating home teams each year, except for each team's designated interleague rival, which will continue to consist of two 2-game series at each of the teams' home parks.
Beginning with the 2022 season, teams compete for the sixplayoff berths in their respective leagues. To secure a berth, a team must either win itsdivision or capture awild card spot by having one of the three best records among the non-winners in its entire league.[142] With the adoption of a third wild card, the former practice of breaking ties with an additional regular-season game, known asGame 163, was dropped in favor of a tie-breaker formula.[143]
In early-to-mid July, just after the midway point of the season, the Major League Baseball All-Star Game is held during a four-day break from the regular-season schedule. The All-Star Game features a team of players from the American League (AL)—led by the manager of the previous AL World Series team—and a team of players from the National League (NL), similarly managed, in an exhibition game. From 1959 to 1962, two games were held each season, one was held in July and one was held in August. The designated-hitter rule was used in the All-Star Game for the first time in 1989. Following games used a DH when the game was played in an AL ballpark. Since 2010, the DH rule has been in effect regardless of venue.[144]
The first official All-Star Game was held as part of the1933 World's Fair in Chicago, Illinois, and was the idea ofArch Ward, then sports editor forThe Chicago Tribune.[145] Initially intended to be a one-time event, its great success resulted in making the game an annual one. Ward's contribution was recognized by Major League Baseball in 1962 with the creation of the "Arch Ward Trophy", given to the All-Star Game's Most Valuable Player each year.[146] (In 1970, it was renamed the Commissioner's Trophy, until 1985, when the name change was reversed. In 2002, it was renamed theTed Williams Most Valuable Player Award.)[147]
Beginning in 1947, the eight position players in each team's starting lineup have been voted into the game by fans.[145] The fan voting was discontinued after a 1957 ballot-box-stuffing scandal in Cincinnati: seven of the eight slots originally went toReds players, two of whom were subsequently removed from the lineup to make room for Willie Mays andHank Aaron. Fan voting was reinstated in 1970 and has continued ever since, includinginternet voting in recent years.[148]
The2002 contest in Milwaukee controversially ended in an 11-inning tie when both managers ran out of pitchers. In response, starting in 2003 the league which wins the All-Star game received home-field advantage in the World Series: the league champion hosted the first two games at its own ballpark as well as the last two (if necessary). The National League did not win an All-Star game and thus gain a home-field advantage until 2010; it was able to overcome this disadvantage and win in three of the seven World Series from 2003 to 2009.[149][150] This was discontinued after the 2016 season.[151]
MLB All-Stars from both leagues have worn uniforms from their respective teams at the game with one exception. In the1933 All-Star Game, the National League All-Star Team members wore special gray uniforms with "National League" written in navy blue letters across the front of the jersey.[152][153]
The regular season ends after the first Sunday in October (or the last Sunday in September), after which twelve teams enter the postseason playoffs. These twelve teams consist of the six division champions and six "wild-card" teams: the team with the best overallwin–loss record in each of the six divisions, and the three teams in each league with the best records other than the division champions. Four rounds of series of games are played to determine the champion:[154]
Wild Card Series, a best of three games playoff between the lowest seeded division champion and three "wild-card teams", the higher seeds will host all three games
World Series, a best-of-seven-games series played between thepennant winners of each league.
TheCommissioner's Trophy is awarded annually to the winning team of theWorld Series, the league's championship series that concludes the postseason.
Within each league, the division winners are the 1, 2, and 3-seeds, based on win–loss records. The teams with the first, second, and third best records among non-division winners will be seeded 4, 5, and 6 respectively. Throughout the postseason, home-field advantage is awarded to the team with the higher win-loss record, with tiebreakers being applied if necessary. In theWild Card Series, the 3-seed will host the 6-seed, and the 4-seed will host the 5-seed, with the winners advancing to theDivision Series. Unlike theNFL, there is no reseeding between each series. In the Division Series, the 1-seed goes up against the 4/5-seed and the 2-seed goes up against the 3/6-seed. The winners of those matches will compete in their respectiveLeague Championship Series for theirleague pennant, and the pennant winners will advance to the World Series.[155] Since 2017, home-field advantage in the World Series is determined by regular-season records of the two league champions, replacing a system used for the prior 14 seasons where the champion of the league that won the All-Star Game would receive home-field advantage.[151]
The team with home-field advantage in the Wild Card Series will host all three games, and subsequent series' will split home fields between the two teams in a 2-2-1 format in the Division Series and a 2-3-2 format in the League Championship Series and World Series, with the advantaged team hosting games 1 and 2, as well as 6 and 7 (if necessary). With this format, the home-field advantage does not usually play a large role in the postseason unless the series goes to its maximum number of games. However, because the first two games of a postseason series are hosted by the same team, a team starting with two wins will likely have momentum heading into the venue switch.[156][157][158]
In 2008, MLB played theMLB China Series in the People's Republic of China. It was a series of two spring-training games between the San Diego Padres and Los Angeles Dodgers. The games were an effort to popularize baseball in China.[159]
MLB played theMLB Taiwan All-Star Series in Taiwan in November 2011. It was a series of five exhibition games played by a team made up of MLB players called the MLB All-Stars and theChinese Taipei national baseball team. The MLB All-Stars swept the series, five games to zero.[160] At the end of the 2011 season, it was announced that theSeattle Mariners and theOakland Athletics would play their season openers in Japan.[161] In October 2013, Phil Rogers of theChicago Tribune wrote that MLB was considering postseason all-star tours in Taiwan and Korea; baseball is increasing in popularity in both countries.[162]
TheArizona Diamondbacks opened the 2014 season againstLos Angeles Dodgers from March 22–23 in Australia.[163] The teams played each other at the historicSydney Cricket Ground, which has a seating capacity of 46,000. The two games represented the first MLB regular-season play held in that country. The games counted as home games for the Diamondbacks, so they played 79 home games atChase Field.[164]
In 2019, theBoston Red Sox were the home team in a regular-season two-game series against theNew York Yankees. The games, which were the first regular-season MLB games held in Europe, were played on June 29–30 atLondon Stadium with the Yankees winning both games.[165]
TheSan Diego Padres and Los Angeles Dodgers opened the 2024 regular season on March 20–21 atGocheok Sky Dome in Seoul, South Korea. The ceremonial first pitch of the opening game was thrown by the first Korean-born MLB playerChan Ho Park, who made his debut with the LA Dodgers in 1994. The two-game Seoul Series resulted in a split between the two teams. There were also four exhibition games played during March 17–18, where the Dodgers took on theKiwoom Heroes and Team Korea, and the Padres faced theLG Twins and Team Korea.[166]
Rafael Palmeiro (batter) was one of the MLB players suspended for steroid use.[168]
In 1998, bothMark McGwire andSammy Sosa hit morehome runs than the record of 61 set by Yankees right fielderRoger Maris in 1961.Barry Bonds topped the record in 2001 with 73 home runs. McGwire, Bonds, and Sosa became the subjects of speculation regarding the use of performance-enhancing substances. McGwire later admitted that he used a steroid hormone that was still legal in baseball during the 1998 season.[169] Baseball's original steroid testing policy, in effect from 2002 to 2005, provided for penalties ranging from a ten-game suspension for a first positive test to a one-year suspension for a fourth positive test. Players were tested at least once per year, with the chance that several players could be tested many times per year.[170]
The day before theMitchell Report was to be released in 2007, Selig said, "I haven't seen the report yet, but I'm proud I did it."[173][174] The report said that after mandatory random testing began in 2004,HGH treatment for athletic enhancement became popular among players, as HGH is not detectable in tests. It pointed out that HGH is likely a placebo with no performance-enhancing effects.[175] The report included substance use allegations against at least one player from each MLB team.[176]
According toESPN, some people questioned whether Mitchell's director role with the Boston Red Sox created a conflict of interest, especially because no "prime [Sox] players were in the report".[177] The report named several prominent Yankees who were parts of World Series clubs; there is a long-running and fierceYankees–Red Sox rivalry. Former U.S. prosecutorJohn M. Dowd brought up Mitchell's conflict of interest,[178] but he later said that the former senator had done a good job.[179] Mitchell acknowledged that his "tight relationship with Major League Baseball left him open to criticism",[180] but he said that readers who examine the report closely "will not find any evidence of bias, of special treatment of the Red Sox".[180]
On January 10, 2013, MLB and the players union reached an agreement to add random, in-season HGH testing. They also agreed to implement a new test to reveal the use oftestosterone for the 2013 season.[181] The current MLB drug policy provides for an 80-game suspension for a first positive test, a 162-game suspension for a second positive test, and a lifetime suspension for a third positive test.[182] In 2009, allegations surfaced againstAlex Rodriguez andDavid Ortiz, andManny Ramirez received a 50-game suspension after testing positive for banned substances. In early April 2011, Ramirez retired from baseball rather than face a 100-game suspension for his second positive steroid test.[183] He would later unretire, having the suspension dropped to 50 games, and would serve those in 2012.[184]
Several networks televise baseball games, includingFox,ESPN,TBS, andMLB Network. Since 2008, Fox Sports has broadcast MLB games onSaturdays throughout the entire season; Fox previously only broadcast games from May to September.[185] Fox also holds rights to the All-Star Game each season. Fox also alternates League Championship Series broadcasts, broadcasting theAmerican League Championship Series (ALCS) in odd-numbered years and theNational League Championship Series (NLCS) in even-numbered years. Fox broadcasts all games of the World Series.[186][187][188] ESPN continues to broadcast MLB games as well, beginning with national Opening Day coverage.[189] The network airs the programBaseball Tonight prior to its weekly regular season game titled:Sunday Night Baseball. ESPN also has the rights to the Home Run Derby every July and in the postseason broadcasts the Wild Card Series exclusively.[190][191]
TBS has aired Sunday afternoon regular season games (non-exclusive) nationally, but beginning in 2022 this will be replaced by Tuesday night games.[192][193] From 2007 to 2020, TBS had its exclusive rights to any tiebreaker games that determine division or wild card champions. It also airs exclusive coverage of theDivision Series round of the playoffs.[194] TBS carries theLeague Championship Series that are not included under Fox's television agreement; TBS shows the NLCS in odd-numbered years and the ALCS in even-numbered years.[192]
In January 2009, MLB launched MLB Network, featuring news and coverage from around the league, and airing 26 live games in the 2009 season.[195] Each team also has local broadcasts for all games not carried by Fox on Saturdays or ESPN on Sunday nights. These games are typically split between a local broadcast television station and a local orregional sports network (RSN), though some teams only air local games through RSNs or through their own team networks. As Canada only contains one team,Sportsnet broadcasts Toronto Blue Jays games nationally.[196] The channel is owned byRogers Communications, who is also the parent company of the Blue Jays.[196] Sportsnet also televises Fox's Saturday afternoon games, the All-Star Game, playoff games, and the World Series.[196][197] In April 2011,TSN2 began carrying ESPNSunday Night Baseball in Canada.[198]TVA Sports airs Blue Jays games in French.[199]
In the2024 season,The Roku Channel began streaming MLB Sunday Leadoff.[15] Midway through that season, it was confirmed thatTelevisaUnivision had signed a multi-year agreement to broadcastMLB En Vivo on Tuesdays onUniMás,TUDN andViX, with live clips and highlights of up to 15 games each week.The contract also included exclusive Spanish-language TV rights to the 2024 American League postseason games (ALDS and ALCS) with select games airing onUnivision as well as UniMás, TUDN and Vix, and Game 1 of that season's World Series, sharing airtime with Fox andFox Deportes.[210][211]
Note: Toronto Blue Jays territory covers all of Canada
MLB has severalblackout rules.[212] A local broadcaster has priority to televise games of the team in their market over national broadcasters if the game is not exclusive to the national broadcaster. A market that has a local team playing in a non-exclusive game will receive an alternative programming feed on the national broadcaster.[213] MLB's streaming internet video service is also subject to the same blackout rules.[214] Commissioner Robert Manfred has expressed interest in changing the blackout policy to loosen the rules for streaming options.[215]
During the 1923 World Series, Rice was the main broadcaster, but during the fourth inning of Game 3, he turned the microphone over to McNamee.[218][221] This was the start of McNamee's career, and McNamee became the firstcolor commentator. Although frequently criticized for his lack of expertise, McNamee helped popularize baseball.[222][216][221][223]
In1998, national radio broadcasts moved toESPN Radio.[224] ESPN Radio currently broadcastsSunday Night Baseball games during the regular season, as well as Saturday and occasional weekday games, along with the All-Star Game and all postseason contests.[225] Since 2021,TUDN Radio airs Spanish-language coverage of select regular season and postseason games, including the World Series.[226]
In addition, each team employs its own announcers, who broadcast during the regular season. Most teams operate regional networks to cover their fan bases; some of these supposedly regional networks (such as theNew York Yankees Radio Network) have a national reach with affiliates located across the United States.[227] Major League Baseball has an exclusive rights deal withXM Satellite Radio, which includes the channelMLB Network Radio and live play-by-play of all games.[228] Many teams also maintain a network of stations that broadcast their games in Spanish; as of 2022[update], theLos Angeles Dodgers are the only team that produces radio broadcasts in a third language, with selected games broadcast in Korean.[229] Both Canadian teams (theMontreal Expos before their move to Washington, DC in 2005, and theToronto Blue Jays) have produced radio broadcasts in French.[230]
MLB games are also broadcast live on the internet.[231][232] All television and radio broadcasts of games are available via subscription toMLB.tv at Major League Baseball's website, MLB.com, and radio-only broadcasts are also available via subscription to MLB.com Gameday Audio.[233]
Since 2005, Major League Baseball has a partnership withXM Satellite Radio, launching a 24-7 channel, MLB Home Plate (nowMLB Network Radio) which carries every major league game.[234][235] Games are also carried on MLB Gameday Audio.[236]
While all teams maintain a network of stations carrying their games in English, many teams also maintain a Spanish-language network as well. In addition, when theWashington Nationals were based in Montreal as the Montreal Expos, their games were broadcast in both English andFrench. Selected games of the Los Angeles Dodgers are broadcast in Korean byKMPC.[237]
Disney Media Networks Latin America through its linear channels (ESPN,ESPN Caribbean,ESPN Brazil) andDisney+ owns the broadcast rights to more than 180 regular season games (at least 1 game per day), the Home Run Derby, the All Star Game and the post season including: the Wild Card Series, the Division Series, the Championship Series and the World Series for all of Latin America and the Caribbean.[238][239][240][241] ESPN broadcasts some MLB games in other countries, includingESPN Australia in Australia and New Zealand,ESPN Africa, andESPN in the Netherlands.[242][243]
In Mexico, until 2022,Fox Sports aired five regular season games per week[244] and post-season games that belong to the league that broadcasts its American namesake (including theWild Card Series). Likewise,TUDN carried 4 matches a week until 2022: through the pay television signal, games were broadcast on Tuesdays and Thursdays, while on Saturdays (generally at 12:00 p.m.) and Sundays (rotating between NBA games, until the start of the NFL season) games were broadcast onCanal 9. Starting with the Championship Series, it only broadcast one division and the whole World Series, these were broadcast on free-to-air television for 59 years.[245] Starting with the 2023 season,Imagen Televisión announced it would begin broadcasting a regular season game every Saturday and Sunday as well as the playoffs and the World Series on open television and its website inMexico.[246][247]
In Argentina,Fox Sports carries 5 regular season games per week and post-season games that belong to the league that broadcasts its American namesake (including the Wild Card Series).[248]
In Venezuela, since the 2016 season the cable channel IVC has the broadcast rights, they currently air 7 games per week.[249] Starting with the 2022 season,Televen broadcasts two games a week and the postseason on free-to-air TV[250][251][252] WhileVenevisión, starting with the 2023 season, would return with the space "El Juego de la Semana" that carries a game every Sunday and non-working days on free-to-air television.[253]
In the Dominican Republic since 2009Grupo Altice has broadcast the entire regular season, playoffs and World Series through pay TV while on free-to-air television and radioGrupo Corripio airs 7 games per week and the entire postseason.[254][255][256]
In Spain,Movistar Plus+ has the rights to broadcast the entire season, including one game daily, and the postseason, covering all games in the championship series and World Series.[257][243]
Channel 5 in the United Kingdom previously screened MLB games, including the All-Star Game andpostseason games, on Sunday and Wednesday, usually starting at 1 a.m.BST. Most recently,Johnny Gould andJosh Chetwynd presentedMLB on Five on that station.[258] The channel covered baseball beginning on its opening night in 1997, but for financial reasons, the decision was made not to pick up MLB for the 2009 season.[259]BT Sport ESPN show live and recorded games several times a week—it is available withBT Sport and (on a subscriber-basis)Virgin Media in the UK.[260]ESPN America televised many games in the UK and dozens of other countries; in May 2013, ESPN announced that it would shut down the channel on July 31, 2013.[261][262]
In the Middle East, North Africa and France, MLB games are broadcast onbeIN Sports channels.[263][264]
In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, as many as 500 MLB games will be broadcast from 2022 exclusively on theSport1 platforms until 2026.[265]Sport1 also broadcasts MLB games in Hungary, as of 2025[update].[266]
^In this context, "major leagues" narrowly refers to the National League and American League; for other leagues considered major at various times, see discussion ofother recognized leagues.
^ABC does not regularly broadcast MLB regular season games on TV, though it does carry some postseason games[9][10]
^Langs, Sarah (May 29, 2021)."Donaldson scores MLB's 2 millionth run".MLB.com.Archived from the original on June 2, 2021. RetrievedMarch 4, 2022.Official MLB history dates to 1876, when the National League began play. According to research by MLB's official historian, John Thorn, the first run came on April 22 of that year – in the first game of the season, between the Boston Red Stockings, now the Braves, and the Philadelphia Athletics.
^abc"The Commissionership: A Historical Perspective".MLB.com. Archived fromthe original on July 28, 2016. RetrievedMarch 11, 2016.The strength of the American League grew as an increasing number of National League players opted for the higher salaries offered by the new association. Faced with the prospect of losing many of its best players, the NL chose peace and declared the AL its equal in 1903. This led to a new National Agreement and the birth of the World Series. The American and National Leagues were established as major leagues and all other associations comprised the minor leagues, which fell under the jurisdiction of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues.
^"The World's Professional Leagues". August 17, 2016.Archived from the original on June 13, 2024. RetrievedMay 27, 2025.Major League Baseball (MLB), the first-ever established professional sports league in the world in 1876, is the world's premier baseball league.
^D'Addona, Dan (Fall 2011)."Baseball's Forgotten Era: The '80s". Baseball Research Journal. Society for American Baseball Research (SABR).Archived from the original on February 27, 2019. RetrievedFebruary 26, 2019.
^Calcaterra, Craig (May 29, 2019)."Happy birthday to baseball's antitrust exemption".NBC Sports.Archived from the original on November 10, 2021. RetrievedNovember 10, 2021.What is still in place, firmly, is Major League Baseball's ability to work to thwart competitors, if any ever arise, and its ability to carve out protected geographic territories for its clubs and anti-competitive contract rights for its clubs.
^abcMLB required the Astros to accept this move as a condition of approving their sale toJim Crane."Astros' sale finalized; 2 more for playoffs".ESPN. Associated Press. November 17, 2011.Archived from the original on April 10, 2012. RetrievedNovember 17, 2011.
^Schwarz, Alan (May 10, 2005)."World Cup announcement made".ESPN.com. ESPN Enterprises, Inc.Archived from the original on April 7, 2024. RetrievedJune 1, 2024.
Buchanan, Lamont,The World Series and Highlights of Baseball, E. P. Dutton & Company, 1951.
Cohen, Richard M., Neft, David, Johnson, Roland T., Deutsch, Jordan A.,The World Series, 1976, Dial Press.
Deutsch, Jordan A.,Cohen, Richard M.,Neft, David, Johnson, Roland T.,The Scrapbook History of Baseball, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1975.
Scott, Richard.Jackie Robinson. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987.
James, Bill.The Historical Baseball Abstract. New York: Villard, 1985 (with many subsequent editions).
Lanigan, Ernest,Baseball Cyclopedia, 1922, originally published byBaseball Magazine.
Lansch, Jerry,Glory Fades Away: The Nineteenth Century World Series Rediscovered, Taylor Publishing, 1991.ISBN0-87833-726-1.
Murphy, Cait.Crazy '08: How a Cast of Cranks, Rogues, Boneheads, and Magnates Created the Greatest Year in Baseball History. New York: Smithsonian Books, 2007.ISBN978-0-06-088937-1.
Okkonen, Marc.Baseball Uniforms of the 20th Century: The Official Major League Baseball Guide, 1991.
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