Mainline Protestant churches have stressedsocial justice and personalsalvation and, bothpolitically andtheologically, tend to be more liberal than non-mainline Protestant churches. Mainline Protestant churches share a common approach that often leads to collaboration in organizations such as theNational Council of Churches, and because of their involvement with theecumenical movement, they are sometimes given the alternative label of "ecumenical Protestantism" (especially outside the United States). While in 1970 the mainline Protestant churches claimed most Protestants and more than 30 percent of the American population as members, as of 2009[update] they were a minority among American Protestants, claiming approximately 15 percent of American adults. In 2024, approximately 13.1% of Americans were white non-Hispanic mainline Protestants according to thePublic Religion Research Institute'sCensus of American Religion.[10]
The termmainline Protestant was coined duringdebates between modernists and fundamentalists in the 1920s.[11] Several sources claim that the term is derived from thePhiladelphia Main Line, a group of affluent suburbs of Philadelphia; most residents belonged to mainline denominations.[12] Today, most mainline Protestants remain rooted in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States. C. Kirk Hadaway and Penny Long Marler define the term as follows: "the term 'mainline Protestant' is used along with 'mainstream Protestant' and 'oldline Protestant' to categorize denominations that are affiliated with the National Council of Churches and have deep historical roots in and long-standing influence on American society."[13]
In the US, Protestantism is generally divided between mainline denominations andevangelical ortheologically conservative denominations. The term is also occasionally used to refer to historic Protestant churches in Canada, Europe, Hong Kong, Latin America, and South Africa.[14][15][16][17][18] The term has also been applied globally by researchers atDurham University.[19] In some other parts of the world, the termmainline Protestant is not used. Instead, the term "ecumenical" is used to distinguish similar churches from evangelical denominations.[20][21] Some have criticized the termmainline for its allegedWhite Anglo-Saxon Protestant ethnocentric and elitist assumptions, and its erroneous association with the term "mainstream" since it almost exclusively describedWhite American, non-fundamentalist and non-evangelical Protestant Americans from its origin to the late twentieth century.[7][8][4][6]
The termmainstream Christian in academic usage is not equivalent tomainline Protestant and is often used as an attempt to find impartial sociological vocabulary in distinguishingorthodoxy andheresy.[22] Hence in Christological and doctrinal referencemainstream Christianity is often equivalent toTrinitarianism. Mainline Protestantism should not be confused withNicene Christianity which is more widely accepted as having the "mainstream Christianity" designation that also includesCatholics,Eastern andOriental Orthodox believers, and non-Mainline Protestants such asEvangelical,Fundamentalist,Charismatic,Confessional,Confessing Movement, the historicallyBlack church, andGlobal SouthProtestants.[4][5][6][7][8] In the United Kingdom and Australia, the termmainline Protestant is not always used, andmainstream does not meanprogressive Protestant. Although some supporters and adherents do claim that Mainline Protestant is synonymous with Mainstream Protestant.[23][24]
The largest mainline churches are sometimes referred to as the "Seven Sisters of AmericanProtestantism,"[25] a term apparently coined by William Hutchison.[26] The "Seven Sisters" are:
United Methodist Church (UMC) is the largest mainline Protestant denomination among the "Seven Sisters" with nearly 5.04 million members in the United States in 2024.[27]
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) is the second largest mainline denomination with approximately 2.7 million baptized members and 8,400 congregations at the end of 2024.[28]
Episcopal Church (TEC) is third largest, with 1.6 million active baptized members,[29] of whom 1.4 million members are located in the United States in 2022.[30]
Presbyterian Church (USA) (PCUSA) is the fourth largest mainline denomination, with 1.1 million active members in 8,700 congregations (2021).[31]
The term is also occasionally used to refer to historic Protestant churches in Europe, Latin America, and South Africa.[65][17][15][18] It has also been applied globally.[19]
Historically African American denominations are usually categorized differently from evangelicals or mainline.[66] However, in 2014 theChristian Century identified that these groups "fit the mainline description."[67]
Mainline Protestantism is characterized by theological and ideologicalpluralism. While doctrinal standards and confessional statements exist, these are not usually interpreted in ways to exclude people from membership.[clarification needed] Richard Hutcheson Jr., chairman of the Office of Review and Evaluation of thePresbyterian Church in the United States, observed that clergy candidates were more likely to be rejected due to "excessive narrowness" than for violating confessional standards.[85]
Mainline churches hold a range of theological orientations—conservative, moderate andliberal.[86] About half of mainline Protestants describe themselves as liberal.[86] Mainline Christian groups are often more accepting of other beliefs and faiths, affirm theordination of women, and have become increasingly affirming ofgay ordination.[86] A 2021 Pew Research Center survey found that 56% of mainline Protestants believe that non-Christians, including agnostics and atheists, can go toheaven, compared to around a fifth of evangelical Protestants and 38% of those who attend historically Black churches.[87] Nearly one-third of mainline Protestants call themselves conservative, and most local mainline congregations have a strong, active conservative element.[86] Mainline denominations are historicallyTrinitarian and proclaimJesus Christ as Lord and Son of God.
In practice, mainline churches tend to be theologically moderate and influenced byhigher criticism, an approach used by scholars to separate the Bible's earliest historical elements from perceived later additions and intentional distortions. Mainline denominations generally teach that the Bible is God's Word in function, but that it must beinterpreted both through the lens of the cultures in which it was originally written, and examined using God-given reason.[citation needed] A 2008 survey conducted by thePew Research Center found that 22 percent of the 7,500 mainline Christians surveyed said the Bible is God's Word and is to be interpreted as literally true, word for word. Thirty-eight percent thought that the Bible is God's Word but is not to be taken literally, word for word. Twenty-eight percent said the Bible was not theWord of God but was of human origin.[88]
It has been noted,even by members of mainline churches,[clarify][weasel words] that the leadership of denominational agencies and bureaucracies has often been more theologically and socially liberal than the overall membership of the mainline churches. This gap has caused feelings of alienation among conservative mainline Protestants.[89] This dissatisfaction has led to the formation of variousConfessing Movements orcharismatic renewal movements which are more conservative in tone.
The mainline denominations emphasize the biblical concept of justice, stressing the need for Christians to work forsocial justice, which usually involve politically liberal approaches to social and economic problems. Early in the 20th century, they actively supported theSocial Gospel.[citation needed]
Mainline churches were basicallypacifistic before 1940, but under the influence of people such asReinhold Niebuhr they supportedWorld War II and theCold War.[90][need quotation to verify] They have been far from uniform in their reaction to issues of gender and sexuality, though they tend to be more accepting than theCatholic Church or the more conservative Protestant churches.[91]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2025)
Many mainline denominations are active in voicing perspectives on social issues. Almost all mainline denominations are gender-inclusive and ordain women.[92]
Politically, mainline churches are also active. While no particular candidate can be endorsed, mainline churches often invite political speakers. At the 2016 General Conference for theAfrican Methodist Episcopal Church, ahistorically Black denomination which also identifies as mainline,Hillary Clinton was invited to offer an address for the delegates and clergy.[93]
The Episcopal Church (TEC), Presbyterian Church (USA) (PCUSA), Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA), and United Church of Christ (UCC) are members of theReligious Coalition for Reproductive Choice.[94] The United Methodist Church (UMC) and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) support exceptions, when abortion may be necessary, but do not endorse the procedure.[95][96] Other denominations, such as the Church of the Brethren and Mennonite Church USA, are against abortion.[97][98]
Many mainline churches recognize, bless and/or perform same-sex marriages, including the ELCA, TEC, PC(USA), Society of Friends (Quaker), UUA, UCC,[99] the Anglican Church of Canada,[100] Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada,[101] and United Church of Canada.[102]
In 2015, the Mennonite Church Canada saw its first same-sex marriage in one of its congregations.[103]
The American Baptist Churches USA allows each congregation the freedom to decide for itself.[104] Some congregations of the Church of the Brethren have also voted to perform same-gender marriages although the national denomination opposes this practice.[105]
The Mennonite Church USA, Metropolitan Community Church, and Moravian Church Northern Province license or ordain openly gay clergy.[106][107] The Western Jurisdiction of the UMC also elected the denomination's first openly gay bishop in 2016.[108]
The ELCA, TEC, PC(USA), UCC, UUA, Anglican Church of Canada, ELCIC, and United Church of Canada also ordain openly transgender clergy; the United Methodist Church has allowed the ordination of openly transgender clergy since 2007.[109][110]
The term "mainline" once implied a certain numerical majority or dominant presence in mainstream society, but that is no longer the case. Protestant churches as a whole have slowly declined in total membership since the 1960s. As the national population has grown these churches have shrunk from 63% of the population in 1970 to 54% by 2000, and 40% in 2024, ceasing to be the religious category for the majority of Americans.[111][112] American affiliation with mainline denominations declined from 55% of all Protestants in 1973 to 29% in 2024.[113] The number of mainline congregations in the U.S. declined from more than 80,000 churches in the 1950s to about 72,000 in 2008.[114]Robert Drinan estimated that there may have been a hundred million Mainline Protestants at one time in the United States.[115]
Various causes of mainline decline in population have been cited. Much analysis has taken place both from those within and outside mainline denominations. Key factors indicate that all types of churches can and do grow, regardless of hymnody or contemporary music, type of liturgy, average age of worshiper, or location[116] On average, however, churches in rural areas, churches with older congregants, and churches with fewer young people involved struggle most to add members and grow churches. For example, of all churches founded since 1993, 54% are experiencing growth, compared to 28% of congregations founded prior to 1900.[117] As demographics change, the churches founded by earlier generations often struggle to adapt to changing conditions, including the declines or shifts in the age and ethnicity of local populations. Says David Roozen, Director of Hartford Seminary's Hartford Institute for Religion Research, "Location, Location, Location used to be the kind way that researchers described the extent to which the growth or decline of American congregations was captive to the demographic changes going on in their immediate neighborhoods."[118] Age demographics are also a real factor in congregational decline, with the birthrate for mainline Protestants well below what is needed to maintain membership numbers.[119]
TheBarna Group, anEvangelical surveyor, has noted that Protestant pastors who serve mainline churches serve on average half as long as Protestant pastors in non-mainline churches.[114] This may contribute to decline and may be influenced in part by theUnited Methodist Church practice of Itinerancy, where clergy are intentionally moved from one church to another as often as yearly in an effort to support and encourage the United Methodist tradition of strong lay ministry. Mainline churches have also had difficulty attracting minorities, particularly Hispanics. As of 2024, Hispanics comprise 6 percent of the mainline population but 19.5 percent of the US population.[120][121] According to the Barna Group report, the failure of mainline Protestants to add substantial numbers of Hispanics is portent for the future, given both the rapid increase of the Hispanic population as well as the outflow of Hispanics from Catholicism to Protestant churches in the past decade, most of whom are selecting evangelical orPentecostal Protestant churches.[114]
One of the largest factors in the decline of both mainline and other forms of Protestant churches is the rapid rise ofnon-denominational Christianity, which is almost entirely Protestant. In 1972, fewer than 3% of Americans identified as non-denominational, while over 13% do in 2020, nearly half of the population of Americans that no longer identify with mainline Protestantism. As of 2020, non-denominational Christians made up the second largest religious tradition in the United States afterCatholics, even ahead of traditionally conservative denominations with steadier membership rates.[122] Factors attributed to this trend include:
The overtly evangelistic tradition of non-denominational churches, which gained over 9,000 congregations between 2010 and 2020 even while other denominations maintained or lost congregations.[123]
Defections of entire congregations instead of simple church planting, which tends to take longer to gain members. Data shows that between 2005 and 2015, over 8,000 established churches (primarily ofSouthern Baptist Convention persuasion but relatively split between denominations as a whole) chose to unaffiliate with their churches and become independent.[124]
The rise of nondenominational publishers and parachurch organizations whose content tend to culturally dominate large swaths of the Protestant community regardless of denomination.[123]
Political disagreement with the growing cultural progressivism of mainline Protestantism, which has led to both a large rise in nondenominational Christians and schisms within several of the mainline Protestant churches.[124]
While various Protestant denominations have experienced declining membership, the most pronounced changes have occurred among mainline churches. Demographic trends for evangelical and historicallyAfrican-American churches have been more stable. According to the Pew Research Center, mainline denominations could claim 11.5 percent of all US adults, compared to 23.1 percent who identified as evangelical in 2024.[113][125]
Demographers Hout, Greeley, and Wilde have attributed the long-term decline in mainline membership and the concomitant growth in the conservative Protestant denominations to four basic causes: birth rates; switching to conservative denominations; departure from Protestantism to "no religion" (i.e. secularization); and conversions from non-Protestant sources.[126] In their analysis, by far the main cause is birth rates—low for the mainline bodies, and high for the conservatives. The second most important factor is that fewer conservatives switch to mainline denominations than before. Despite speculation to the contrary, Hout, Greeley, and Wilde argue that switching from a mainline to a conservative denomination is not important in accounting for the trend, because it is fairly constant over the decades. Finally, conservative denominations have had a greater inflow of converts.[126] Their analysis gives no support for the notion that theological orsocial conservatism or liberalism has much impact on long-term growth trends.[127]
Evidence from theGeneral Social Survey indicates that higher fertility and earlier childbearing among women from conservative denominations explains 76% of the observed trend: conservative denominations have grown their own. Mainline denomination members have the lowest birthrate among American Christian groups. Unless there is a surge of new members, rising death rates are predicted to diminish their ranks even further in the years ahead.[86]
From 1958 to 2008, mainline church membership dropped by more than one-quarter to roughly 20 million people—15 percent of all American adults.[114]
From 1998 to 2008, there was a 22 percent drop in the percentage of adults attending mainline congregations who have children under the age of 18 living in their home.[114]
In 2009, nearly 40 percent of mainline church attendees were single. This increase has been driven higher by a rise in the number of divorced and widowed adherents.[114]
From 1998 to 2008, volunteerism dropped 21 percent; adultSunday school participation decreased 17 percent.[114]
The average age of a mainline pastor in 1998 was 48 and increased to 55 by 2009.[114]
Pastors on average remain with a congregation for four years compared to twice that length for non-mainline church leaders.[114]
The decline in mainline Protestant identification has been so steep that Evangelical identification has risen among Protestants, even as it has declined among all U.S. adults.[113]
The Pew Research Center's 2023-2024 Religious Landscape Study provide additional explanations for the decline.
Evangelical church members are younger than those in mainline denominations. 14 percent of evangelical congregations are between 18 and 29 (compared to 11 percent of mainline protestants), 30 percent between 30 and 49 (versus 24), 28 percent between 50 and 64 (versus 27), and 27 percent 65 or older (versus 38).[128]
Not paralleling the decline in membership is the household income of members of mainline denominations. Overall, it is higher than that of evangelicals:
25% reported less than a $30,000 income per year.
21% reported $30,000–$49,999 per year.
18% reported $50,000–$74,999 per year.
15% reported $75,000–$99,999 per year.
21% reported an income of $100,000 per year or more, compared to 13 percent of evangelicals.[88]
While the term "mainline" was not applied to churches until the 20th century, mainline churches trace their history to theProtestant Reformation of the 16th century. The largest and most influential Protestant denominations in Britain'sThirteen Colonies were theAnglicans (after the American Revolution called Episcopalians) and theCongregationalists (from which theUnitarians would later split).[129] These were later surpassed in size and influence by other Protestants: the Baptists, Presbyterians and Methodists. Sharing a common Reformation heritage with Episcopal and Congregational churches, these denominations together created the mainline.[130] It was, according to historian Jason Lantzer, "the emerging evangelical movement that would help forge the Seven Sisters and which provides a core to the wide variety of theological and doctrinal differences, shaping them into a more coherent whole."[129]
TheSecond Great Awakening would inaugurate a period of evangelical dominance within American mainline Protestantism that would last over a century.[130] The Second Great Awakening was a catalyst for the reform of society. Efforts to improve the rights of women, reforming prisons, establishing free public schools, prohibiting alcohol, and (in the North) abolishing slavery were promoted by mainline churches.[132]
As 19th–century evangelicals embraceddispensational premillennialism and retreated from society in the face of mounting social problems caused by industrialization, urbanization and immigration, liberal Protestants embraced theSocial Gospel, which worked for the "regeneration of society" rather than only the conversion of individuals.[134]
TheFundamentalist–Modernist Controversy of the 1920s widened the division between evangelical and non-evangelical Protestants as the two sides fought for control over the mainline denominations. Thefundamentalists lost these battles for control to the modernists or liberals.[133] Since the 1920s, mainline churches have been associated with liberal Protestantism.[134]
Through the 1940s and 1950s,neo-orthodoxy had become the prevailing theological approach within the mainline churches. This neo-orthodox consensus, however, gave way to resurgent liberal theologies in the 1960s and toliberation theology during the 1970s.[89]
Mainline Protestants were a majority of Protestants in the United States until the mid-20th century. A dip in membership across all Christian denominations was more pronounced among mainline groups, with the result that mainline groups no longer comprise the majority.[140] In 2020, Public Religion Research Institute conducted a religious census, based on self-identification, finding that an estimated 16% of U.S. Americans identified as non-Hispanic white mainline Protestants, slightly outnumbering non-Hispanic white evangelical Protestants who were 14% of the American population.[141][142] In 2014, Pew Research completed and published theReligious Landscape Survey in which it was estimated that 14.7% of American adults identified as mainline Protestant, excluding historically Black and African American denominations, while 25.4% identified as evangelical Protestants, also excluding membership in historically Black denominations.[143] In 2025, Pew Research published an updatedReligious Landscape Survey, finding that 11% of American adults identified as mainline Protestant while 23% identified as evangelical Protestants.[144]
Mainline churches share an active approach to social issues that often leads to cooperation in organizations such as theNational Council of Churches.[145] Because of their involvement with theecumenical movement, mainline churches are sometimes (especially outside the United States) given the alternative label of ecumenical Protestantism.[146] These churches played a leading role in theSocial Gospel movement and were active in social causes such as thecivil rights movement and thewomen's movement.[147] As a group, the mainline churches have maintained religious doctrine that stressessocial justice and personalsalvation.[125] Members of mainline denominations have played leadership roles in politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They were involved in the founding of leading institutes of higher education.[148] Marsden argues that in the 1950s, "Mainline Protestant leaders were part of the liberal-moderate cultural mainstream, and their leading spokespersons were respected participants in the national conversation."[149]
Some mainline Protestant denominations have the highest proportion of graduate and post-graduate degrees of any other denomination in the United States.[150] Some also include the highest proportion of those with some college education, such as theEpiscopal Church (76%),[150] thePresbyterian Church (U.S.A.) (64%),[150] and theUnited Church of Christ (46%),[151] as well as most of theAmerican upper class.[150] compared with the nationwide average of 50%.[150] Episcopalians and Presbyterians also tend to be considerably wealthier[152] and better educated than most other religious groups,[153] and they were disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of US business and law until the 1950s.[137]
From 1854 until at least 1964, Mainline Protestants and their descendants were heavilyRepublican.[138] In recent decades, Republicans slightly outnumber Democrats.[154]
From 1965 to 1988, mainline church membership declined from 31 million to 25 million, then fell to 21 million in 2005.[155] While in 1970 the mainline churches claimed most Protestants and more than 30 percent of the population as members,[126] today they are a minority among Protestants; in 2009, only 15 percent of Americans were adherents.[114] APew Forum statistic revealed the same share in 2014.[156]
^The National Association of Congregational Christian Churches is considered to be evangelical by Pew Research[53] while the Association of Religion Data Archives considered it to be mainline.
^abcWorld Encyclopaedia of Interfaith Studies: World religions. Jnanada Prakashan. 2009.ISBN978-81-7139-280-3.In the most common sense, "mainstream" refers to Nicene Christianity, or rather the traditions which continue to claim adherence to the Nicene Creed.
^abcMarty 1980, pp. 8: "the term 'Mainline' may be as unfortunate as the pejorative-sounding WASP, but it is no more likely to fall into disuse and may as well be … Mainline religion had meant simply white Protestant until well into the twentieth century."
^abcCoalter, Mulder & Weeks 1990: "Some would say the term 'mainstream' or 'mainline' is itself suspect and embodies ethnocentric and elitist assumptions. ... be dropped in favor of talking about 'liberal' Protestantism, but such a change presents additional problems".
^abGoodhew, David, ed. (2017).Growth and decline in the Anglican communion: 1980 to the present. Routledge contemporary ecclesiology (First ed.). London New York: Routledge. pp. 61–2.ISBN978-1-4724-3364-0.
^Dunderberg 2008, pp. 18–19: "with theological meaning, such as replacing 'orthodoxy' with 'mainstream Christianity' and 'heresy' with terms like 'sect,' 'splinter group,' or something similar. These designations may create the impression of greater neutrality and ..."
^Elliot, Neil (15 March 2024)."Dioceses of the ACC – by numbers".Numbers Matters. (Neil Elliot is the statistics officer for the Anglican Church of Canada.). Retrieved14 May 2024.
^"Quiénes Somos" [About Us] (in Spanish). Anglican Church of Mexico. Archived fromthe original on October 8, 2016. RetrievedJune 20, 2016.
^"Anglicanos mexicanos rechazan unirse a la Iglesia católica".cronica.com.mx. Archived fromthe original on 2020-12-19. Retrieved2016-06-20.The Church claims this number of adherents or members, though it is most likely a much smaller percentage of this total, according to data provided by the Mexican Institute for Statistics and Geography (INEGI) which includes them among "other Protestants" in the traditional Protestant and Reformed church category. This is an "umbrella" category and includes a wide variety of churches and as a category has as adherents or members only slightly over 50,000 persons. The Anglican Church of Mexico has had a long history of overreporting its number of adherents or members as it received subsidies from the Episcopal Church in the U.S. (now TEC) depending on growth.
^Fahmy, Gregory A. Smith, Alan Cooperman, Becka A. Alper, Besheer Mohamed, Chip Rotolo, Patricia Tevington, Justin Nortey, Asta Kallo, Jeff Diamant and Dalia (2025-02-26)."1. Religious identity".Pew Research Center. Retrieved2025-05-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^abcFahmy, Gregory A. Smith, Alan Cooperman, Becka A. Alper, Besheer Mohamed, Chip Rotolo, Patricia Tevington, Justin Nortey, Asta Kallo, Jeff Diamant and Dalia (2025-02-26)."1. Religious identity".Pew Research Center. Retrieved2025-05-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^abcW. Williams, Peter (2016).Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression. University of North Carolina Press. p. 176.ISBN978-1-4696-2698-7.The names of fashionable families who were already Episcopalian, like the Morgans, or those, like the Fricks, who now became so, goes on interminably: Aldrich, Astor, Biddle, Booth, Brown, Du Pont, Firestone, Ford, Gardner, Mellon, Morgan, Procter, the Vanderbilt, Whitney. Episcopalians branches of the Baptist Rockefellers and Jewish Guggenheims even appeared on these family trees.
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