Mahra State of Qishn and Socotra | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1432–1967 | |||||||||
 Flag | |||||||||
.svg) Map of Mahra in 1923 | |||||||||
.svg) Location of Mahra within the Arabian peninsula in 1923 | |||||||||
| Capital | Shihr (until 1495) Qishn Tamrida/Hadibu | ||||||||
| Common languages | Arabic,Mehri | ||||||||
| Religion | Islam | ||||||||
| Demonym | Mehri | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | 1432 | ||||||||
• British protectorate | 1886 | ||||||||
• Dissolved | 30 November 1967 | ||||||||
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| Today part of | Yemen Oman | ||||||||
| Part ofa series on the |
| History of Yemen |
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TheMahra Sultanate, known in its later years as theMahra State of Qishn and Socotra (Arabic:الدولة المهرية للبر وسقطرىAl-Dawlah al-Mahrīyah lil-Barr wa-Suquṭrā) or sometimes theMahra Sultanate of Ghayda and Socotra (Arabic:سلطنة المهرة في الغيضة وسقطرىSalṭanat al-Mahrah fī al-Ghayḍah wa-Suquṭrā), was asultanate that included the historical region ofMahra and theGuardafui Channel island ofSocotra in what is now easternYemen. It was ruled by theBanu Afrar dynasty for most of its history.
The Sultanate was inhabited by theMehri people who spoke theMahri language, amodern South Arabian language. The Mehri share, with their regional neighbours on the island of Socotra and inDhofar, cultural traditions like a modern South Arabian language, andfrankincense agriculture. The region benefits from a coastal climate, distinct from the surrounding desert climate, with seasons dominated by thekhareef ormonsoon.
In 1886, the Sultanate came under the British-ruledAden Protectorate and later under theProtectorate of South Arabia. The Sultanate was abolished in 1967 upon the founding of thePeople's Republic of South Yemen. With the departure of the British from the larger southern Arabian region, theAden-based South Yemeni government divided the sultanate, creating theAl Mahra Governorate and Socotra was administered by theAden Governorate. The sultanate is now part of the Republic of Yemen and theSultanate of Oman.
The ancient history of the Mahra region begins with the formation of theʿĀd kingdom by an Arabian tribe called ʿĀd which settled in South Arabia. The Mehri people are traditionally considered descendants of the ʿĀd Kingdom and blood relatives of theThamud.[1] According toIslamic genealogies, the forefather of the Mehri people wasYa'rub, the son ofQahtan, grandson of the Islamic prophetHud, and ancestor of theHimyarite,Qataban andSabaean kingdoms.[2][3][4] Ya'rub (or, by alternate accounts, Ya'rub's son), is sometimes credited with the invention of theArabic language.[5][6][7][8]
During ancient times, the ʿĀd Kingdom was a transshipment point for thefrankincense trade. It was exported mostly to ancient Europe. It has been suggested the ʿĀd Kingdom, and the current location of Mahra Sultanate, were the first places in the world where thecamel was domesticated.[9]
During the first decade of theIslamic calendar (the620s in theGregorian calendar), a large delegation from Mahra under the leadership ofMehri bin Abyad went to Medina to meet the Islamic prophetMuhammad, and during that meeting the entire Mehri tribe decided to embraceIslam. Before embracing Islam, the tribe was polytheist and worshiped multiple deities. After the meeting in Medina, Muhammad issued an injunction, stating that the members of the Mehri tribe are true Muslims and no war should be waged against them, and that any violator of the injunction shall be considered to be waging war againstAllah.[10]
The entire Mehri tribe became some of the earliest adopters of Islam. Their action had an added bonus as becoming Muslims secured them a political alliance and stable relations with the Muslim leadership in Medina. Prior to embracingIslam, Al-Mahra was a vassal state of theAchaemenid Empire and had been subjected to Persian control for many years. Siding with Medina enabled the Mehri people to break away from Persian control and regain their liberty.
When Muhammad died in the year 632 CE, many Arab tribes, including the Mehri, interpreted his death as the end of Islam, and they abandoned the religion by either reverting to paganism or following certain individuals who claimed prophethood.[11] In 634 CE, the Mehri and other tribes rebelled against CaliphAbu Bakar who became the new leader of the Muslims. In response, he launched a new military campaign against the rebels.
There were not many records about the power structure within the Mehris, however, during theRidda Wars information regarding the intra-tribal affair was revealed byal-Tabari. According to al-Tabari,[11] before the death of Muhammad, there was an intra-tribal rivalry within the Mehri tribe, which consisted of two competing factions: the Bani Shakhrah faction and their larger rival, the Bani Muharib. The Bani Muharib, who hailed from Al-Mahra's mountain regions, had the upper hand against their smaller rival.
A Muslim army under the command ofIkrimah ibn Abi Jahl was sent to Al-Mahra to face the Mehri who had turned their back on Islam like many Arab tribes. The Muslim army was too weak to confront the Mehri tribe in battle, and this situation forced Ikrimah to engage in political activity rather than initiating war in Mahra. Ikrimah met with the leadership of the Bani Muharib faction and convinced them to return to Islam. After this event, the army under Ikrimah's command, and the Bani Muharib faction, formed a military alliance against the Bani Shakhrah. The Ridda War in Al-Mahra ended quickly as the newly formed alliance subdued the Bani Shakhrah faction without bloodshed. Islam was once again the only religion in Al-Mahra.
The people of al-Mahra played a role in the history of Islam and the Arab world's military achievements during the early years of Islam. The Mehri army participated in the firstMuslim conquest of the Maghreb. The Mehri tribe's achievements have been well-documented by historianIbn 'Abd al-Hakam[12] in his book titledThe History of the Conquests of Egypt and North Africa and Spain.
At the beginning of the firstMuslim conquest of the Maghreb, the Al-Mahri tribe mostly contributed cavalry to the army. They played a crucial role in the Arab army under the command of'Amr ibn al-'As, who was a well-known Arab military commander and one of the SahabaCompanions. The Al-Mahri army fought alongside him during the Arab conquest of North Africa, which began with the defeat of the Byzantine imperial forces at theBattle of Heliopolis, and later at theBattle of Nikiou in Egypt in the year 646. The Mehri army were highly skilledcavalry which rode horses and a special camel breed called the Mehri originating from Al-Mahra which was renowned for its speed, agility and toughness.[12] The Al-Mahra contingent even spearheaded the army during the conquest of the city ofAlexandria.[12]
The Al-Mahra army was nicknamed "the people who kill without being killed" by'Amr ibn al-'As.[12] Commander 'Amr ibn al-'As was amazed by Mehri army's ruthlessly fighting skill and efficient warfare.[12]
As a result of Al-Mahri's success in theMuslim conquest of Egypt, its commander named Abd al-sallam ibn Habira al-Mahri was promoted and he was ordered by 'Amr ibn al-'As to lead the entire Muslim army during the Arab conquest ofLibya which at the time was aByzantine territory.[12] The army under the command Abd al-sallam ibn Habira Al-Mahri defeated the Byzantine imperial army in Libya, and this campaign headed by Commander Al-Mahri brought a permanent end to Byzantine rule of Libya. After the Muslim conquest of Egypt, Abd al-sallam ibn Habira Al-Mahri was once again promoted as a result of his success as a temporary commander of the entire Muslim army, and subsequently he was appointed the first Muslim leader ofLibya.
During theSecond Fitna, more than 600 soldiers carrying the Al-Mahra flag were sent to North Africa to fight the Byzantines and Berbers.[12]
Throughout the firstMuslim conquest of the Maghreb the army from Al-Mahra were awarded lands in the newly conquered territories. Initially the Mehri tribe were awarded lands in the region of Jabal Yashkar by the Muslim leadership. This region was located east of the town ofAl-Askar which at that time was the capital of Egypt.[13] After the end of Muslim conquest of Egypt in year 641, the Muslim commander 'Amr ibn al-'As established the town ofFustat which became the new capital ofEgypt, and the Mehri tribe were given additional land inFustat which then became known as Khittat Mahra or the Mahra quarter in English. This land was used by the Mahra forces as a garrison.[12] The Mahra quarter was named after the residents from Al-Mahra as they were the sole residents and owners of the land. Other Arab tribes which were part of the Muslim conquest of Egypt had to share lands which is the reason why their lands bore a non-tribal name.[12] The Mahra tribe also shared the al-Raya quarter in Fustat with various tribes who were closely associated with the Muhammad and, according to historical accounts, the Mahra forces used the al-Raya quarter as a residence and stable for their precious horses.[14] The Mahra quarter was located close to the Al-Raya quarter was which the absolute centre of the new capital of Fustat. Later, the Mahra neighbourhood was renamed and lost its historic name.
Several centuries later, another Mehri man calledAbu Bekr Mohammed Ibn Ammar Al-Mahri Ash-shilbi, who was a politician from modern-daySilves, Portugal, became a prime minister of theTaifa of Seville in Islamic Iberia,[15] and served KingAl-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, who was member of Muslim dynasties of Spain. Abu Bekr was highly competent as prime minister, but later he crowned himself king of the annexedTaifa of Murcia and led a failed rebellion against the Mohammedan dynasties of Spain. In year 1084, Abu Bekr Mohammed Ibn Ammar Al-Mahri Ash-shilbi was caught and executed by the forces of theKingdom of Seville.
After the erosion ofAbbasid authority in Yemen, the tribes of al-Mahra had grown distant from Arabic rule. TheAyyubids of Egypt held loose authority over the region, followed by theRasulids of western Yemen.[16]
In 1432, the Ba Dujana family took control of the important coastal city ofShihr from the Rasulids, and then successfully repelled a Rasulid counterattack. In 1445, the Ba Dujana defended against an attack by the newly formedKathiri state, securing their borders.[17] The independent sultanate at Shihr was the first premodern state inMahri lands.
Following the collapse of the Rasulid dynasty and the rise of theTahirids, a number of former dignitaries fromAden came to Shihr as refugees, and told the reigning sultan,Muhammad bin Sa'd, that Aden was ripe for conquest. In 1456, Muhammad bin Sa'd launched a naval invasion of Aden with nine ships; however, much of the fleet was broken up in a storm and bin Sa'd was captured by the Tahirids. In retaliation, the Tahirid sultan sent an army commanded byZayn al-Sunbuli to occupy Shihr. The campaign was only half-successful, and parts of the area were still held by the Ba Dujana. Determined to break the stalemate, SultanMalik Amir bin Tahir led a great expedition across the desert coast from Aden to Mahra. Vastly outnumbered, the Ba Dujana retreated from Shihr ahead of the Tahirid advance. The Tahirids plundered the city and installed a governor who was loyal to their interests.[18]
The city of Shihr was once more brought under the control of the Ba Dujana clan in 1478, when it was taken by their young leader, Sa'd bin Faris.[19] Around 1480, the Mahri settled the island ofSocotra and used it as a strategic base against their rivals inHadhramaut.[20] During this time, al-Mahra had been in a near-constant state of war with the Kathiri, who were trying to take control of Shihr. In 1488, the Ba Dujana enlisted the help of their Socotran allies to push the Kathiri out of Shihr once more.
Yet the dominance of the Ba Dujana clan would last only for another seven years. In 1495, bouts of infighting between the tribes of Mahra escalated into civil war. The Kathiri sultan, Jafar bin 'Amr, took advantage of the situation to support the Zwedi faction, ensuring the downfall of the Ba Dujana hegemony. After a disastrous defeat at Tabala, on the outskirts of Shihr, the Ba Dujana permanently lost control of the city and were isolated in the interior. They were replaced by the Zwedi and Afrari families ofQishn and Socotra, who, in sacrificing Shihr to the Kathiri state, managed to solidify the core Mahra domain as it would remain, more or less, until the present day.[21]
In 1507, aPortuguese fleet commanded byTristão da Cunha andAfonso de Albuquerque landed on Socotra and, after a bloody battle, seized the main fortress atSuq.[22] Socotra would remain in Portuguese hands until 1511, and was abandoned by the Portuguese due to its poor strategic importance to control the Red Sea.[23]
In 1545, the Kathiri sultan Badr bin Tuwayriq amassed an army and, with support from theOttoman Turks, conquered Qishn. The Portuguese, who were competing with the Ottomans for control of trade routes in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, bombarded Qishn and returned it to the Mahris.[21]
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The connection of the British Government with Mahra commenced in 1834, when Captain Ross, of the Indian Navy, was sent on a mission to Mahra, and concluded an agreement with Sultan Ahmed bin Sultan of Fartash and his cousin, Sultan bin Amr of Qishn, by which they consented to the landing and storage of coal on the island by the British Government.[24]
In 1835 negotiations were undertaken through Commander Haines with the Sultan, Amr bin Saad Tawari, for the purchase of the island, and in anticipation of their success a detachment of European and Indian troops was sent to take possession. The Sultan, however, refused to sell the island, or even to cede a portion of it as a coaling depot, and the troops were withdrawn.[24] In 1838 the Chief proposed to farm the island to the British Government, but the capture of Aden, while the proposal was under discussion, rendered it unnecessary to secure Socotra as a coaling station.[24]
Sultan Amr bin Saad Tawari died about 1845, and was succeeded in the Sultanate of Socotra and Qishn by his nephew, Tawari bin Ali, who in turn was succeeded by his grandson, Ahmed bin Saad. The latter was succeeded by his nephew, Abdulla bin Saad, who was followed by his cousin, Abdulla bin Salim. On the death of the latter he was succeeded by his son, Ali.[24]
In January 1876 an agreement was concluded with the Sultan of Socotra and Qishn, by which, in consideration of a payment of 3,000 dollars and an annual subsidy of 360 dollars, he bound himself, his heirs and successors, never to cede, sell, mortgage, or otherwise give for occupation, save to the British Government, the island of Socotra or any of its dependencies, the neighbouring islands.[24]
In 1886 he accepted a Protectorate Treaty, and bound himself to abstain from all dealings with foreign powers without the previous sanction of the British Government. At the same time he undertook to give immediate notice to the Resident at Aden or other British officer of any attempt by any other power to interfere with Socotra and its dependencies.[24] In 1888 a similar Protectorate Treaty was concluded with Sultan Ali bin Abdulla, as head of the Mahri tribe, and his annual stipend was increased by 120 dollars.[24] In 1898 some of the cargo of the P. and O. S. S. Aden wrecked off Socotra was plundered, and the Sultan was reminded of his obligations under the Agreement of 1876.[24]
Sultan Ali bin Abdulla had three sons, all of whom predeceased him. He died in 1907 and was succeeded by Sultan Abdulla bin Isa, to whom was continued the annual stipend paid to his predecessor.[24] The Sultan of Socotra and Qishn receives a salute of 9 guns, which was made permanent in 1902.[24]
In the 1940s Al-Mahra and its neighbouring regions along the Gulf were forced to sign Advisory Treaties,[25] and those who refused were subjected to deadly airstrikes delivered by the British Royal Air force.[citation needed] The Advisory Treaty meant that the local leadership no longer had jurisdiction over their internal affairs, and the treaty gave the British government complete control over the nation's internal affairs and the order of succession. The Advisory Treaties caused resentment against British rule and the spread ofArab Nationalism in Al-Mahra and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula.
During the 1960s the British sustained losses against various Egypt-sponsored guerrilla forces and theFront for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY). In 1963 the British government declared a state of emergency in the Aden Protectorate, and by 1967 the British forces had left Yemen as a result of losses against theNational Liberation Front (Yemen) which later seized power in Al-Mahra. In 1967, the Al-Mahra sultanate was absorbed by the Marxist People's Republic of South Yemen which itself was an entity heavily sponsored by the Soviets.[25] They put an end to the centuries-old Al-Mahri sultanate. Sultan Isa bin Ali al-Afrar al-Mahri was the last reigning al-Mahri Sultan of Qishn and Socotra.
The sultanate was abolished in 1967 and was annexed by Soviet supported South Yemen, which itself later united with North Yemen to become unified Yemen in 1990. In 2014 the land which was formerly known as the Mahra Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra was absorbed into a new region called Hadramaut.[26]
The Sultans of Mahra had the title ofSultan al-Dawla al-Mahriyya (Sultan Qishn wa Suqutra).[27] Their descendants are active politicians nowadays.[28] The Al-Mahra Sultanate was consistently ruled by the Al-Mahri dynasty from year 1750 till 1967.
Al-Mahra is home to the Mehri camel, which has been an integral part of Al-Mahra army's military success during the Islamic conquests of Egypt and North Africa against the Byzantine Empire. During the conquests the cavalry unit from Al-Mahra introduced the Mehri camel to northern Africa, and now it is found throughout the area. It is better known as the Mehari camel in most of northern Africa, and is sometimes also known as the Sahel camel.[citation needed]
It is a special breed originating in Al-Mahra. They are renowned for their speed, agility and toughness. They have a large but slender physique, and because of its small hump it is perfectly suited for riding.[citation needed]
During the colonial period in northern Africa, the French government took advantage of the Mehri camel's proven military capabilities, and established a camel corps called theMéhariste which was part of theArmée d'Afrique. It patrolled the Sahara using the Mehri camel. The French Méhariste camel corps was part of the Compagnies Sahariennes the French Army of the Levant.[citation needed]
In 1968, France's car makerCitroën introduced theCitroën Méhari, which was a light off-road vehicle named after the famous Mehri camel. The Citroën Méhari was a variant of theCitroën 2CV, and Citroën built more than 144,000 Méhari between 1968 and 1988. A new, 2016 electric model called theCitroën E-Méhari is now being sold in Europe; it is a compact SUV like theMéhari.[citation needed]
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Papers dated 1933 concern the report by the Aden Resident (Reilly) of the death of Sultan 'Abdulla bin 'Isa bin 'Afrar, the succession of his cousin, Sultan 'Ali bin Salim bin Ahem bin Tu'ari, and the authorisation of his stipend.
Papers dated 1933 concern the report by the Aden Resident (Reilly) of the death of Sultan 'Abdulla bin 'Isa bin 'Afrar, the succession of his cousin, Sultan 'Ali bin Salim bin Ahem bin Tu'ari, and the authorisation of his stipend.
