In thisMalay name, there is nosurname or family name. The nameMohamad is apatronymic, and the person should be referred to by theirgiven name,Mahathir. The word "bin" or "binti"/"binte" means 'son of' or 'daughter of', respectively.
Mahathir bin Mohamad (Jawi:محاضر بن محمد;[2]IPA:[mahaðɪ(r)bɪnmohamad]; born 10 July 1925) is a Malaysian politician, author and doctor who served as the fourth and seventhprime minister of Malaysia from 1981 to 2003 and again from 2018 to 2020. He was the country's longest-serving prime minister, serving for a cumulative total of 24 years. His political career has spanned more than 75 years, from joining protests opposing citizenship policies for non-Malays in theMalayan Union in the 1940s to forming theGerakan Tanah Air coalition in 2022. During his premiership, Mahathir was granted the title "Father of Modernisation" (Malay:Bapa Pemodenan) for his pivotal role in transforming the country's economy and infrastructure. At100 years old, he is currently the oldest living former Malaysian prime minister.
During Mahathir'sfirst tenure from 1981 to 2003, Malaysia experienced significanteconomic growth andmodernisation, with his government promoting industry-wideprivatisation and initiating major infrastructure projects, such as theNorth–South Expressway and theKuala Lumpur City Centre. His policies were credited with transforming Malaysia into one ofSoutheast Asia's mostdynamic emerging economies. He was a dominant political figure, securing five consecutive general election victories and maintaining leadership of theUMNO despite internal challenges. Mahathir continued pro-bumiputera policies and oversaw Malaysia’s relatively swift recovery from the1997 Asian financial crisis, aided bycapital controls and stimulus measures that diverged fromIMF prescriptions. As prime minister, he was a strong proponent ofAsian values and alternative development models, and he played a prominent role in theMuslim world.
In 1987, he ordered the detention of numerous activists underOperation Lalang, and his administration was involved in the1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis, which raised concerns aboutjudicial independence. He supported aconstitutional amendment that stripped theroyalty of criminal immunity, a move widely regarded as a legal reform strengthening the rule of law. In 1998, the dismissal of deputyAnwar Ibrahim sparked theReformasi and became a major point of political debate in Malaysia. Critics accused Mahathir ofauthoritarianism for centralising power and suppressing dissent, while supporters argued that his actions were necessary to preserve national stability.
Mohamad Iskandar [ms] was the principal of anEnglish-medium secondary school, whose lower-middle-class status meant his daughters were unable to enrol in a secondary school.Wan Tempawan Wan Hanapi [ms] had only distant relations to members of Kedah's royalty. Both had been married previously. Mahathir was born with six half-siblings and two full-siblings.[9] His childhood home, with a single shared bedroom and no electricity supply, was later converted to a tourist attraction and opened to the public.[10][11] During his childhood, Mahathir enjoyed playing snakes and ladders and demonstrated multiple creative talents, including playing the trumpet, interior decorating, and engaging in crafts and carpentry work.[12] He once shared that he wasbullied in his youth, recalling how he sold balloons for a small profit but was forced by a stronger peer to use his earnings to buy food for him.[13]
Mahathir in a school uniform, circa 1939
Mahathir began his education at Seberang Perak Malay Boys School,Alor Setar, Kedah in 1930.[11] Mahathir was a hard-working student. Discipline imposed by his father motivated him to study, and he showed little interest in sports. Having become fluent in English well ahead of his primary school peers, including editing the English student newspaper and winning a series of language awards,[14] he won a position in aselective English-medium secondary schoolGovernment English School in 1933.[11][15] Although he was not a sports fan, Mahathir took uprugby during his school days because he liked the sport and wanted to avoid being lazy and weak.[16] With schools closed during theJapanese occupation of Malaya inWorld War II, he started a small business at Pekan Rabu, selling coffee and snacks such aspisang goreng (banana fritters).[3] Even after becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir continued to visit Pekan Rabu whenever he traveled to Alor Setar.[17]
After the war, Mahathir graduated from secondary school with the highest rank and enrolled to studymedicine at theKing Edward VII College of Medicine inSingapore.[18] Mahathir studied medicine at what was then called University of Malaya, later renamedUniversity of Singapore.[19] When the university granted him an honorary degree in November 2018, he said "I will always value my stay in Singapore for nearly six years."[20] During his college years, Mahathir developed a passion for driving, often traveling long distances, including from Singapore to his hometown in Alor Setar, in hisconvertible.[21] In 1947, Mahathir, writing under the pen name 'Che Det' inThe Sunday Times, published an article titledMalay Women Make Their Own Freedom, in which he discussed the struggle of Malay women in the post-war period and stated, "It is up to the men and especially the fathers, to realise that they can no longer confine their womenfolk to the kitchen."[12]
Medical career (1953–1959)
The Straits Times reported in 1953 that Mahathir was among the 34 new doctors graduating from the University of Malaya
After graduating in 1953 from theUniversity of Malaya, Mahathir began his housemanship atPenang General Hospital.[22] In 1954, he was sent to Alor Setar General Hospital before being posted to government clinics inLangkawi,Jitra, andPerlis.[22] During his time in Langkawi in 1955, Mahathir was the island's first stationed doctor, witnessing its underdeveloped state—a memory that later influenced his efforts to transform it into a major tourist destination when he became Prime Minister.[22] Reflecting on his early career, Mahathir said he prioritised work over salary, starting withMYR 400.00 as a medical officer before a promotion raised it to MYR 770.00.[23] He then resigned to open his private practice, named "Maha Klinik" (Maha Clinic),[11] while his wife worked as a government doctor for 25 years. Maha Klinik was the first privately owned clinic established by a Malay in Malaysia.[24]
Mahathir acquired the reputation of being a caring doctor, willing to make house calls at any hour, trudging across rice fields in the dark to treat patients. If they could not afford his fee, they settled by installments or paid what they had. He was the town's first Malay physician and a successful one. He built a large house and employed a Chinese man tochauffeur him in hisPontiac Catalina (most chauffeurs at the time were Malay).[25][26] Mahathir andSiti Hasmah were also involved in welfare and public health activities. He served as President of the Kedah Tuberculosis Association, visiting Indian workers on rubber plantations to treat the disease, while she volunteered in the Kedah Family Planning Association.[27] With the money from his medical practice, Mahathir indulged in his entrepreneurial streak and invested in property development,tin mining, a franchised petrol station, and a shop to do quick printing–sometimes to rescue Malay businessmen in trouble. He helped found the Malay Chamber of Commerce and served as its director.[28]
Early political career (1959–1970)
AfterWorld War II ended and theJapanese withdrew, theBritish grouped the Malay states and theStraits Settlements into theMalayan Union, and granted citizenship to non-Malays. This caused major backlash fromMalays and a wave ofMalay nationalism swept across the country. Mahathir became politically activated by these changes, joining protests and activism against the new citizenship policies.[29] Mahathir later argued foraffirmative action for Malays at medical college. While at college, he contributed toThe Straits Times under the pseudonym "C.H.E. Det" and a student journal, in which he fiercely promoted Malay rights, such as calling for the restoration ofMalay as an official language.[30] While practising as a physician in Alor Setar, Mahathir became active in UMNO. His earliest political involvement was in the Kampung Charok Kudong Umno branch, where he made his debut in politics.[31] By the time of thefirst general election for the independent state ofMalaya in 1959, he was the chairman of the party in Kedah.[32]
Despite his prominence in UMNO, Mahathir was not a candidate in the1959 election, ruling himself out following a disagreement with then Prime MinisterTunku Abdul Rahman. Their relationship had been strained since Mahathir had criticised Tunku's agreement toretain British and Commonwealth forces in Malaya after independence. Tunku opposed Mahathir's plans to introduce minimum educational qualifications for UMNO candidates. For Mahathir, this was a significant enough slight to delay his entry into national politics in protest. He contested in the followinggeneral election in 1964, and was elected as the federal parliamentarian for the Alor Setar-based seat ofKota Setar Selatan.[33]
Elected to parliament in a volatile political period, Mahathir, as abackbencher, launched himself into the main conflict of the day:Singapore's future, with its large and economically powerfulethnic Chinese population,as a state of Malaysia.[clarification needed] He vociferously attacked Singapore's dominantPeople's Action Party for being "pro-Chinese" and "anti-Malay" and called its leader,Lee Kuan Yew, "arrogant".[clarification needed] Singapore wasexpelled from Malaysia in Mahathir's first full year in parliament.[33][34] In 1965, Mahathir stated in Parliament that Article 153 of the Federal Constitution, which grants special rights to Malays, was a source of shame for the community and would eventually be abolished.[35] Despite Mahathir's prominence, he lost his seat in the1969 election, defeated byYusof Rawa of thePan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS).[36][37] Mahathir attributed the loss of his seat to ethnic Chinese voters switching support from UMNO to PAS. Being a Malay-dominated seat, only the two major Malay parties fielded candidates, leaving Chinese voters to choose between the Malay-centric UMNO and the Islamist PAS.[38]
Large government losses in the election were followed by therace riots of 13 May 1969. Hundreds of people were killed in clashes between Malays and Chinese. In 1968, Mahathir had expressed concern over escalating racial tensions in two newspaper articles, and feared preventative measures would be needed to avoid violence. Outside parliament, he openly criticised the government, also sending an open dissenting letter to Tunku for failing to uphold Malay interests and calling for his resignation.[39] By the end of the year, Mahathir was fired from UMNO's Supreme Council and expelled from the party. Tunku had to be persuaded not to have him arrested.[37][38]
Expelled from UMNO, Mahathir wrote his first book,The Malay Dilemma, in which he set out his vision for the Malay community. The book argued that a balance had to be achieved between government support for Malays, so that their economic interests would not be dominated by the Chinese, and exposing Malays to sufficient competition. Mahathir saw Malays as typically avoiding hard work and failing to "appreciate the real value of money and property", and hoped this balance would rectify this.[40] Mahathir criticised Tunku's government in the book, which led to it beingbanned in Malaysia.[41] The ban was only lifted in 1981 under Mahathir's premiership.[37][42]
Rise to prominence (1970–1976)
In 1971, Mahathir announced his plan to rejoin UMNO, stating he would make a formal statement at an appropriate time;[43] that same year, he also met Prime MinisterAbdul Razak Hussein during a visit toMorib.[44] Mahathir rejoined UMNO on 7 March 1972.[45][46] Recognizing his potential and sharp political acumen, Razak appointed Mahathir as aSenator for Kedah in 1973.[47] Around the same time, Mahathir also became the chairman of Food Industries of Malaysia (FIMA) Sdn. Bhd.[48][49] In January 1973, as chairman of the FIMA, Mahathir visited a government factory inPekan Nanas.[50] He faced peaceful protests from over 200 workers demanding better working conditions and wage improvements. After Mahathir spoke to the workers and promised to review their grievances, they dispersed peacefully.[50] He remained chairman of FIMA until 1981, when he became Prime Minister and was succeeded by Basir Ismail.[51]
Mahathir rose quickly in theAbdul Razak government, returning to UMNO's Supreme Council in 1973. He returned to theHouse of Representatives in the1974 election, winning the Kedah-based seat ofKubang Pasu unopposed.[37] He was appointed to Cabinet in September 1974 as theMinister for Education.[52] During his tenure, Mahathir rolled out a new school curriculum for both primary and secondary schools, designed to provide holistic education and cultivate well-rounded individuals.[53] Around this time, he also ceased his private medical practice.[54]
In 1975, Mahathir ran for one of the three vice-presidencies of UMNO. The contest was regarded as a struggle for the party's leadership succession, as the health of Abdul Razak and his deputy,Hussein Onn, waned. Each of Abdul Razak's preferred candidates was elected: former Chief Minister of Melaka,Ghafar Baba;Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, a wealthy businessman and member ofKelantan's royal family; and Mahathir. When Razak died the following year, Hussein, as his successor, had to choose between the three men, alongside the Minister of Home AffairsGhazali Shafie, to be deputy prime minister.[55][56] Mahathir's rivals had significant political liabilities: Ghazali, having been defeated by others for the vice-presidency, lacked the support of UMNO members; Ghafar had no higher education and was not fluent in English; and Razaleigh was young, inexperienced, and unmarried. Despite their lack of a close relationship, Hussein eventually appointed Mahathir as his deputy.[citation needed]
After six weeks of indecision, Mahathir was appointed deputy prime minister on 5 March 1976.[57] Several political figures praised his appointment, recognizing his proven ability and experience.[58] The appointment meant that Mahathir was the anointed successor to the prime ministership.[55][56] In October, Mahathir was appointed to lead a cabinet committee to review the Petroleum Development Act.[59] To address the growingdrug problem, Mahathir launched a nationwide anti-drug campaign in 1978 and announced plans to build a large rehabilitation center onPisang Island,Johor.[60] He later warned that if the issue was not addressed, drug abuse could lead to the destruction of the nation.[61]
Mahathir is regarded as having been a successful Minister of Education and then Minister of Trade and Industry (1978–81).[62][63] In the latter post, he implemented a "heavy industries policy", establishing aHICOM, a government-controlled corporation, to invest in the long-term development of manufacturing sectors such as an indigenous car industry.[64] He spent much of his time in the ministry promoting Malaysia through overseas visits.[65] Besides this, as UMNO deputy president, he played a key role in coordinating among the ten component parties of the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition.[66] In the1978 general election, Mahathir served as BN's election director for the state of Perak.[67]
In September 1978, Mahathir launched the Central Unit of the Federal Industrial Development Authority, a streamlined "one-stop agency" aimed at simplifying the application process for licences, permits, and facilities.[68] Later that month, he led a 31-member trade delegation on a 20-day tour to the United States, aiming to attract American investors by highlighting opportunities in Malaysia, including tax exemptions and other incentives.[69] In June 1979, Mahathir led a 23-member delegation toPyongyang to sign Malaysia's first trade agreement withNorth Korea, aimed at exploring opportunities to increase imports of North Korean products.[70] During the visit, he also met with North Korea's supreme leader,Kim Il Sung.[71] In August, Mahathir reported that total approved capital investment in Malaysian companies for 1978 had increased by 38.6 per cent from the previous year, rising fromUS$441.3 million in 1977 to US$611.4 million; the number of approved projects also increased from 400 to 428, and the number of approved projects for expansion grew from 103 in 1976 and 150 in 1977 to 190 in 1978.[72] In December, Mahathir launched the Manpower Development Board to improve manpower training and to help make the 1980s a decade of resource-based industries.[73]
In 1981, facing health issues and advancing age, Hussein Onn decided to step down, paving the way for Mahathir to take over.[74] In his first speech as UMNO president, Mahathir said that Malaysia and the majority Malays had a bright future, but achieving it required a just, strong, and stable government.[75] A few days before being sworn in, Mahathir toldBernama that there would be no major changes in Malaysia's policies, particularly in foreign affairs, trade, and education, while also emphasizingIslam's continued prominence as the official religion.[76][77]
On 17 July 1981,The Straits Times reported that Mahathir had been sworn in as Prime Minister before the Yang di-Pertuan Agong
First 100 days
On 16 July 1981, Mahathir was officially appointed as Malaysia's fourth Prime Minister by theYang di-Pertuan Agong,Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah, and was sworn in during a ceremony attended by acting Chief JusticeSultan Azlan Shah and Chief Secretary to the GovernmentHashim Aman.[78] The swearing-in ceremony, which took 10 minutes, was witnessed by all Cabinet ministers except for Foreign MinisterTengku Ahmad Rithauddeen Ismail, who was inNew York.[79] He said effective implementation of the economic programme and strengthening of relations with the neighbouringASEAN countries would be the priority items in his domestic and foreign policies.[80] Two days after his appointment, Mahathir announced a cabinet reshuffle,[81] including the appointment ofMusa Hitam as Deputy Prime Minister.[82]
At his first Cabinet meeting on 23 July, Mahathir announced that the government had chosen the contractor and decided on a concrete girder type design for the long-plannedPenang Bridge project.[83] Shortly after taking office, he freed 21 political prisoners, includingKassim Ahmad, chairman of the oppositionMalaysian People's Socialist Party, and two members of parliament from theDemocratic Action Party, while also lifting the ban on his bookThe Malay Dilemma.[84]
Mahathir implemented a new initiative to promote punctuality in the government by introducing a clock-in system for all ministers and senior officials. The system required even top leaders to "punch" in, setting an example for the rest of the civil service.[85] His policy quickly showed results, reducing tardiness among civil servants and easing traffic jams inKuala Lumpur as workers began their journeys earlier to avoid penalties for being late to government offices.[86] Mahathir later said he introduced the system because he noticed then that some civil servants left the office at 3pm.[87]
Throughout August, he welcomed Chinese PremierZhao Ziyang[88] and made his first official visits toIndonesia[89] andThailand.[90] Zhao assured Mahathir that China had made efforts to distance itself from theCommunist Party of Malaya, and Mahathir responded that Malaysia would only be fully satisfied ifChina severed all ties with the CPM.[91] On 29 August,The Straits Times commented that in just six weeks, Mahathir had shown he meant business through bold actions and rapid reforms, with his hyperactive movements generating almost daily headlines in the local press.[92] Meanwhile, Mahathir fell ill with an upset stomach during an open-air rally inAlor Star, and had to cut short his speech;[93] this also prompted him to leave for a two-week vacation inSpain andPortugal with his family starting from September 1, during which Musa Hitam acted as Prime Minister.[94]
In September, during a meeting with Iranian Parliament SpeakerAkbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Mahathir offered Malaysia's assistance forIran's development programme, pledged to strengthen economic and trade cooperation, and reaffirmed Malaysia's commitment to helping resolve theIran-Iraq conflict.[95] Meanwhile, Mahathir announced that he would not attend theCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) inMelbourne, citing heavy workload in Malaysia and criticising the Commonwealth for producing "too much talk and very little results.[96] He approved a secretive stock market operation known as the "Dawn Raid" on theLondon Stock Exchange, enabling Malaysian agencyPermodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB) to regain majority control ofGuthrie, a major British plantation company.[97]
On 23 October, as Mahathir was nearing his first 100 days as Prime Minister, Finance MinisterTengku Razaleigh Hamzah introduced a budget focused on tax cuts, inflation control, and encouraging savings and tourism.[98] Mahathir believed that the removal of various taxes under the 1982 Budget would stimulate Malaysia's commercial sector and strengthen its tourism industry.[99]
Mahathir launched the 'Bersih, Cekap & Amanah' campaign to improve government efficiency and combatcorruption.[100] He explained that the concept emphasized administrative integrity, public service responsiveness, and disciplined, hardworking personnel guided by strong ethical values and a commitment to the public good.[101]
In December 1981, Mahathir proposed a change to Malaysia's official time to standardise the time zone across the country. Before this adjustment,Peninsular Malaysia operated atGMT+7:30 whileSabah andSarawak used GMT+8:00. The half-hour difference had existed since before theformation of Malaysia in 1963. Mahathir introduced a motion in the Dewan Rakyat to move Peninsular Malaysia’s time forward by 30 minutes to match that of East Malaysia, with the change coming into effect on 1 January 1982. The proposal was approved by both houses of Parliament without amendment.[105] Following Mahathir's visit toSingapore and discussions with Prime MinisterLee Kuan Yew, theSingapore government also decided to adopt the same time zone adjustment in order to maintain synchronisation with Malaysia.[106] The policy has remained in effect without change since its introduction in 1982.[107]
Economic policy
A staff member explaining coin designs to Mahathir during his visit to theRoyal Mint of Malaysia in January 2002
During his tenure as Prime Minister, Mahathir implemented major structural reforms aimed at reducing the public sector's role in the economy. When he assumed office, Malaysia faced high budget deficits—peaking at 15% ofGDP in 1982—and a federal debt level that reached over 100% of GDP by 1987. In response, Mahathir cut development spending and promoted private sector-led growth. These fiscal adjustments coincided with a recession in 1985, but they laid the groundwork for sustained economic expansion from 1988 to 1996, when GDP growth averaged 9.5% annually.[108]
Mahathir launched the "Malaysia Incorporated" concept in 1983, which envisioned the government and private sector working as partners in national development.[109] In line with this vision, he trimmed the civil service through the privatisation of government agencies.[110] The policy aimed to reduce the government's role in the economy and to promote private sector growth.[111] Industries such as telecommunications, utilities, and airlines were privatised, resulting in the establishment of major companies likeTelekom Malaysia,Tenaga Nasional, andMalaysia Airlines (MAS).[111] By the time Mahathir stepped down in 2003, the number of civil servants had fallen to below one million.[110] However, duringNajib Razak's tenure as prime minister, the civil service grew again relative to the population, which drew criticism.[110]
Mahathir successfully diversified Malaysia's economy from reliance on raw material exports to include manufacturing, services, and tourism.[112] The number of listed companies rose from 253 in 1981 to 906 by the end of 2003, while market capitalisation expanded from RM55 billion to RM640 billion.[113] Funds raised through the equity market increased from RM930 million in 1981 to RM7.6 billion in 2003.[113] By the end of his tenure, Malaysia had become one of the world's leading emerging economies, ranking as the 17th largest trading nation globally and 4th in trade competitiveness, behind only the United States,Canada, andAustralia in 2003.[113]
During the1997 Asian Financial Crisis, Malaysia faced severe economic turmoil as the ringgit lost 35% of its value, foreign reserves dwindled, and the stock market halved. Mahathir refused to accept anIMF bailout, rejecting the austerity measures imposed by global lenders, and instead implemented unorthodox policies including capital controls, a fixed exchange rate, and lower interest rates. Though initially criticised, his measures stabilised the economy, restored investor confidence, and enabled Malaysia to recover rapidly—contracting 7.4% in 1998 but rebounding with 6.1% growth in 1999—while avoiding the social and political upheaval seen in countries likeIndonesia andThailand. Mahathir’s bold defiance of conventional economic wisdom was later vindicated by economists such asPaul Krugman and even acknowledged by the IMF andWorld Bank.[114]
Industrialisation and infrastructure development
TheKuala Lumpur Tower (left) and thePetronas Twin Towers (right), two of the most iconic infrastructure projects initiated during Mahathir's administrationIn October 1985, Mahathir travelled toJakarta to promote the Proton Saga, where it was officially presented toIndonesian PresidentSuharto and members of thecabinet. Suharto praised the initiative, noting the absence of car manufacturing industries elsewhere inSoutheast Asia at the time.
During his tenure as Prime Minister, Mahathir initiated numerous large-scale infrastructure projects.[115]
As early as July 1979, when Mahathir was serving as Minister of Trade and Industry, he proposed a feasibility study on the development of a Malaysian-manufactured car, based on the view that heavy industries were important for national economic development.[116] In October 1981, after becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir invited Yohei Mimura, the then President ofMitsubishi Corporation, to consider participating in the project.[116] In January 1983, Mahathir visited Mitsubishi's Okazaki plant, where he was shown two proposed models, codenamed LM41 and LM44, as potential bases for Malaysia's national car initiative.[116]
The national car project was approved in 1982, andPerusahaan Otomobil Nasional (Proton) was established on 7 May 1983. The company was placed under the ownership ofKhazanah Nasional, Malaysia's sovereign wealth fund.[117] By 1985, Mahathir introduced theProton Saga, the country's first national car.[118] The Proton Saga quickly gained popularity in Malaysia and secured a 64% market share within its segment by 1986. Following this domestic success, Proton expanded into theEuropean market, beginning with the United Kingdom. In 1988, Proton showcased the Saga at the British International Motor Show, where it received three awards for quality, coachwork, and ergonomics. The model was also recognised as the fastest-selling new car make ever to enter the UK market at the time.[119]
Mahathir significantly developedLangkawi by declaring it a duty-free zone in 1987, boosting trade and tourism. He upgraded infrastructure, including a modern airport, and created the Langkawi Development Authority (LADA) to ensure dedicated funding. His efforts attracted investment and major events, including the signing of theLangkawi Declaration on Environment at the1989 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). Mahathir also initiated key events such as Le Tour de Langkawi, the Royal Langkawi International Regatta, and the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition, solidifying Langkawi's status as a key tourism hub.[120]
TheNorth–South Expressway (NSE) was revived during the administration of Mahathir in the 1980s.[121] Spanning approximately 847.7 km fromBukit Kayu Hitam inKedah near the Malaysia–Thailand border toJohor Bahru in the south, it became the longest expressway in Malaysia.[122] The expressway was completed in stages and officially launched by Mahathir on 8 September 1994.[121]
MEASAT (Malaysia East Asia Satellite) was Malaysia's first communications satellite initiative, launched under the leadership of Mahathir in 1993. At the time, the telecommunications sector in Malaysia was heavily dominated byTelekom Malaysia Berhad (TM), a government-owned entity. To break this monopoly and encourage private sector participation, Mahathir facilitated the establishment of Binariang Sdn Bhd, a privately owned company that was awarded the contract to operate the MEASAT system. Binariang later became known asMaxis. In 1994, Binariang signed a contract with Hughes Space and Communications Company (now Boeing Satellite Systems) to build two satellites. The first, MEASAT-1, was launched in January 1996 from the Guiana Space Centre inKourou,French Guiana, in a ceremony officiated by Mahathir himself.[123] It was positioned in geostationary orbit at 91.5° East and enabled direct-to-home broadcasting, expanded telecommunications coverage, and supported the growth of private broadcasters such asAstro. Later that year, MEASAT-2 was launched to supplement the first satellite, offering additional capacity and coverage. Together, MEASAT-1 and MEASAT-2 played a crucial role in modernizing Malaysia's broadcasting and telecommunications infrastructure during the 1990s.[124]
As part of Mahathir's modernisation and infrastructure development policies, he supported large-scale projects such as thePetronas Twin Towers, which became a landmark in Kuala Lumpur. Serving as the headquarters of the national oil company, Petronas, the 88-storey towers were designed by architectCésar Pelli. Construction began in 1993 and was completed in 1996. The towers held the title of the tallest buildings in the world from 1998 to 2004 and remain the tallest twin towers globally.[125] The towers were officially opened to the public on 31 August 1999 by Mahathir.[126] Mahathir maintained an office on the 86th floor of one of the towers.[125]
Additionally, Mahathir supported the development ofKuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). The project was launched in 1993 based on the government's assessment—under Mahathir's leadership—thatSubang Airport was no longer able to accommodate the increasing volume of air passengers. KLIA officially opened on 27 June 1998. Since its inauguration, the airport has been regarded as a world-class international gateway and has received numerous awards from global institutions, including Skytrax and the International Air Transport Association.[127] Another notable project was theKuala Lumpur Tower (KL Tower), a telecommunications and broadcasting facility that also became a cultural and tourism landmark.[128] Mahathir officiated the installation of the tower's antenna mast on 13 September 1994, marking its final height of 421 meters, and later presided over its official launch on 1 October 1996.[128]
In the 1980s, Mahathir proposed the establishment of a new federal administrative center to decentralise government functions and ease congestion in Kuala Lumpur.[129] In 1993, the Cabinet approved the selection of Prang Besar as the development site,[130] and the area was later renamedPutrajaya in 1994.[131] Mahathir launched the construction of Putrajaya in 1995, with the project projected to be completed by 2005 at an estimated cost of RM20 billion.[132] He officiated the groundbreaking ceremony on 10 September 1996 and declared Putrajaya a city in 1997.[130] On 21 June 1999, Mahathir began working from his new office in Putrajaya, marking the official move of thePrime Minister's Department.[133] In 2001, Mahathir announced that Putrajaya would become Malaysia's thirdFederal Territory, after Kuala Lumpur andLabuan.[134] The city was once described by theBBC as "one of the world's greenest cities".[135]
Mahathir launched theMultimedia Super Corridor (MSC) in 1996 as part of his efforts to transform Malaysia into a knowledge-based economy in line with Vision 2020. He officially announced the project at the Multimedia Asia Conference on 1 August 1996, aiming to develop a high-tech zone stretching from the Petronas Twin Towers to Kuala Lumpur International Airport, including Putrajaya andCyberjaya. To promote the initiative, Mahathir visited the United States in January 1997, where he successfully attracted interest from major IT companies and established an international advisory panel of 30 experts to support the MSC's development.[136] Cyberjaya, developed as the first hub of MSC, has since become known as Malaysia's "Silicon Valley" due to its concentration of tech infrastructure, multinational corporations, and higher learning institutions.[137]
In 2000,Microsoft founderBill Gates described the MSC in Cyberjaya as the fastest developing IT centre in the world, praising it as one of the most ambitious and committed technology initiatives outside the United States.[138] Mahathir also invested heavily in constructing theBukit Jalil National Stadium and related facilities to host the1998 Commonwealth Games.[139] The event was widely regarded as a success,[140] during whichQueen Elizabeth II, who officiated the closing ceremony, remarked that she andPrince Philip were deeply impressed with Malaysia's infrastructure development.[141] Commonwealth Games chairman Michael Fennell also declared during the closing ceremony that "Malaysia promised the best ever Commonwealth Games, and Malaysia delivered".[142]
Buy British Last and Look East Policy
In 1981, Mahathir launched the Buy British Last (BBL) policy as a response to the British government's decision to raise tuition fees for foreign students, which disproportionately affected Malaysian scholars in the United Kingdom. At the time, Malaysia had over 17,000 students in the UK, and the removal of subsidies placed a significant financial burden on the government. When Mahathir's appeal for reinstating subsidies was rejected by theMargaret Thatcher administration, Malaysia retaliated by limiting imports from British companies, publicly discouraging British goods and services unless deemed absolutely necessary.[143]
The Buy British Last campaign was part of Mahathir's broader vision to reduce Malaysia's reliance on the West and assert greater national autonomy. In line with this approach, he introduced the Look East Policy (LEP) in 1982, which encouraged Malaysians to adopt the work ethic and development model ofEast Asian nations, particularlyJapan andSouth Korea. The policy involved sending Malaysian students and trainees to Japan for education and industrial training, while also inviting Japanese professionals to contribute to Malaysia's development. Mahathir was deeply impressed by Japan's post-war recovery and industrial discipline, which he saw as a model for Malaysia's own modernization efforts.[143] He also noted in his speech at the 20th Anniversary of the Look East Policy in 2002 that nations had looked to Japan for inspiration even prior to the policy's formal launch, citing theMeiji Restoration and Japan's victory in theRusso-Japanese War as pivotal moments that encouraged many Asian countries to resist Western colonial domination.[144] In 2022, during the 40th anniversary of the Look East Policy, Mahathir said the policy had been largely successful, noting that over 26,000 Malaysians had been sent to Japan since 1982 and nearly 1,500 Japanese companies were operating in Malaysia, employing more than 400,000 Malaysians.[145]
Health policy
In 1983, Mahathir announced a shift in health policy as part of a broader economic strategy emphasising private sector growth. The government began promoting the expansion of private healthcare and initiated studies on alternative financing methods, including insurance-based models. In 1985, the first official study on health financing reform was commissioned under his administration. Over the following two decades, private sector involvement in healthcare increased significantly. The number of private hospitals grew from 50 in 1980 to 224 by 2000, and the out-of-pocket share of national health expenditure rose steadily.[146]
Reforms during Mahathir’s tenure included the corporatisation of Hospital Kuala Lumpur’s cardiac unit into theNational Heart Institute (IJN) in 1992,[146] following his heart attack in 1989, which prompted efforts to improve cardiac care in Malaysia.[147] Other measures included the contracting out of drug distribution in 1994, and the outsourcing of hospital support services in 1996.[146] In 1994, theWorld Health Organization (WHO) presented Mahathir with an award for his contributions to primary health care in Malaysia.[148]
Drug policy
Upon assuming office as Prime Minister, Mahathir identifieddrug abuse as the primary public enemy of the nation.[149] Shortly after taking office, he stressed that the misuse and abuse of drugs were socially destructive, and that governments bore a heavy responsibility to prevent drug abuse from harming societies and leading the younger generation into irresponsibility and social deviance.[150]
Malaysia introduced thedeath penalty for offences such as murder anddrug trafficking in 1975, initially as a discretionary punishment.[151] During Mahathir's administration, the death penalty for drug trafficking was made mandatory in 1983, reflecting the government's hardline stance against drug-related crimes at the time.[151] The media has described Malaysia as having some of the world's toughest drug laws, including a mandatory death penalty for those convicted of trafficking 15 grams (0.5 oz) or more of heroin or morphine, 1,000 grams (2.2 lbs) of opium, or 400 grams (14 oz) of cannabis.[152]
Under Mahathir's leadership, the government also implemented other anti-drug measures, including strengthening border control and launching large-scale public education campaigns. Anti-drug stories appeared regularly in the newspapers, and public service announcements became a common feature on television. The establishment of the Anti-Narcotics Committee and its executive arm, the Anti-Narcotics Task Force, in 1983 was a key part of these efforts. The committee, chaired by the Prime Minister and accountable to the National Security Council, was empowered by legislation passed in 1985, which allowed the government to detain suspected drug syndicate leaders without trial.[153]
According to data fromAmnesty International, Malaysian authorities executed over 120 prisoners convicted of capital drug offenses between 1983 and 1992, with at least 39 executions in 1992, the highest annual total ever recorded by Amnesty International in Malaysia.[154] Notable cases include the execution ofKevin Barlow and Brian Chambers, two Australian nationals in 1986, who became the first Westerners to be sentenced to death in Malaysia. Last-minute appeals for clemency from Australian Prime MinisterBob Hawke, British Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher, and Amnesty International were unsuccessful, with Hawke condemning the hangings as "barbaric", and Mahathir responding, "You should tell that to the drug traffickers".[155] In May 1990, eightHong Kong citizens were hanged in Malaysia, marking the largest mass execution for drug offenses in the country's history.[156]
Due to the anti-drug policies, Malaysia's drug-related incidents decreased from 14,624 cases in 1983 to 7,596 cases in 1987, and the number of foreign nationals apprehended for drug trafficking also declined.[157] In 1987, Mahathir was elected as the President of the International Conference on Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking,[158] where he chaired the plenary session.[159] During the discussions on two working papers, one on guidelines for combating the drug menace and the other on the declaration against drugs, 138 nations provided overwhelming support.[159]
Constitutional amendments and weakening of royal powers
Under Malaysia'sfederal and state constitutions, the Malay Rulers are bound byWestminster-style conventions, with the King generally expected to act on the advice of the executive. This arrangement had functioned relatively smoothly—until Mahathir became Prime Minister and the federal government began to take action against certain Rulers who flouted the law and lived lavishly at public expense.[160]
In 1983, Mahathir introduced a series of constitutional amendments aimed at limiting the powers of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Among the proposed changes were the imposition of a 30-day limit for the monarch to veto legislation and a restriction on the King's authority to declare astate of emergency. The proposals were met with significant resistance from the Malay rulers, prompting Mahathir's government to launch a public campaign to pressure the monarchy into accepting the changes. Eventually, a compromise was reached, and a revised amendment was passed, restoring the King's right to declare emergencies and allowing up to 60 days to delay legislation, but royal assent was no longer required for the enactment of laws.[161]
In 1993, another constitutional crisis unfolded following an alleged assault by theSultan of Johor on hockey coach Douglas Gomez.[161] Up until then, the rulers had enjoyed absolute personal immunity from proceedings in any civil or criminal court. On 6 December 1992, Maktab Sultan Abu Bakar Johor hockey coach Douglas Gomez lodged a police report alleging that he was beaten by the then Sultan of Johor,Sultan Iskandar Sultan Ismail.[162] Responding to the report, Mahathir had said: "The royalty is not above the law. They cannot kill people. They cannot beat people." Four days later, on 10 December, the Dewan Rakyat held a special session and passed a motion to curb the powers of the royalty if necessary. The motion received 96 votes from the 180 lawmakers, including two votes from PAS and DAP. It was the first time a reproach against the monarchy was accepted by theDewan Rakyat.[163]
The then Deputy Prime MinisterAbdul Ghafar Baba subsequently moved a bill to amend the Constitution to make the rulers liable to criminal and civil proceedings in ordinary courts. The motion stated that "all necessary action must be taken to ensure that a similar incident" would not recur.Semangat 46, led byTengku Razaleigh Hamzah, opposed the motion, arguing it would undermine royal authority and Malay privileges.[163]
During this period, page 2 of the government-controlledNew Straits Times regularly featured reports exposing royal excesses. Sultan Ismail Petra of Kelantan, for instance, was said to have imported 30 duty-free luxury cars—far exceeding the permitted seven—and once evaded customs officials in a Lamborghini Diablo by claiming he was test-driving it. The paper highlighted the RM200 million cost of maintaining the rulers, including exclusive hospital wards and RM9.3 million spent on new cutlery and bedspreads for the King—enough, it noted, to build two hospitals, 46 rural clinics, or 46 primary schools.[164]
On 19 January 1993, following a two-day special sitting, the Dewan Rakyat overwhelmingly passed the Constitution (Amendment) Bill 1993 with 133 votes in favour, aiming to remove the legal immunity of the Malay Rulers.[165] However, the sultans refused to comply, arguing that the constitution clearly prohibited the government from enacting laws affecting them without their consent.[166] In a joint statement condemning Parliament's move, the rulers asserted that they had always played a vital constitutional role—particularly in securing independence, shaping the federal constitution, and preserving Malay unity.[166] In March 1993, a compromise bill was introduced with several key concessions: no civil or criminal action could commence against the royalty in their personal capacity except with the attorney-general's consent under Article 183; rulers were permitted to initiate civil proceedings; all such cases would be tried under a Special Court established under Articles 181(2) and 182; and the Conference of Rulers would nominate two out of five judges to the Special Court under Article 182(1). If convicted, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, rulers, and their consorts could be pardoned by the Conference of Rulers under Article 42(12)(b). These reforms were eventually accepted by a majority of the Conference of Rulers, formalising the Special Court system.[163] The first notable case under the new system occurred in October 2008, when the court ordered the thenYang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan to pay US$1 million to a bank in a civil suit.[167]
Further reforms followed in 1994 when the government amended the constitution to ensure that any law passed by Parliament would automatically become law within 30 days, regardless of whether the King gave assent.[163] These three episodes marked a significant shift in the balance of power between the monarchy and the executive, with Mahathir consolidating civilian authority over royal prerogatives. His administration was the first to successfully curtail the discretionary powers of the Malay rulers in post-independence Malaysia.[161]
Under Mahathir's leadership, Malaysia undertook significant military modernisation efforts. As Minister of Defence from 1981 to 1986, he played a key role in shaping the country's defense strategy. His administration oversaw the procurement of advanced military assets, including 18 Russian-madeMiG-29N fighter jets and eight American-madeF/A-18D Hornets, diversifying Malaysia's defense partnerships beyond traditional suppliers. Malaysia also explored the purchase of submarines, with plans to acquire BritishOberon-class submarines in 1988, although the deal was later canceled. Additionally, Mahathir strengthened Malaysia's defense ties with various countries, includingPoland,Brazil,India, andPakistan, expanding the range of military equipment procurement.[168]
A major structural reform during Mahathir's leadership was the establishment of the10th Parachute Brigade (10 Briged Para) in 1994 as aRapid Deployment Force (Pasukan Aturgerak Cepat). Internationally, Malaysia became a key contributor toUnited Nations peacekeeping missions, deploying around 18,000 military and police personnel between 1998 and 2003. The country's active participation peaked between 1992 and 1996, with about 2,500 peacekeepers sent toCambodia, Bosnia, andSomalia. In recognition of Malaysia's commitment, the Malaysian Peacekeeping Training Centre (MPC) was established inPort Dickson in 1996, following an agreement with theUN to provide personnel for peacekeeping missions at any time.[168]
During Mahathir's first tenure as Prime Minister, transboundary haze pollution emerged as a serious regional concern, with severe episodes beginning in the early 1990s and peaking in 1997. The haze, caused primarily byforest fires inIndonesia, posed significant environmental and health risks across Southeast Asia. In response to the 1997 crisis, the Malaysian government declared a state of emergency inSarawak and several cities in Peninsular Malaysia. Mahathir's administration deployed 2,000 firefighters, the SMART disaster relief team, and Royal Malaysian Air Force units for cloud seeding operations in affected areas. He also established a disaster management committee, introduced policies on disaster and haze control, and reactivated the National Haze Action Plan. Mahathir publicly warned 17 Malaysian plantation companies operating in Indonesia to extinguish fires on their concessions or face repercussions.[169] On 11 December 1997, Malaysia and Indonesia signed a memorandum of understanding to jointly address transboundary haze issues through information exchange, joint training, and public awareness efforts.[170][169] These bilateral efforts contributed to the eventual signing of theASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution in Kuala Lumpur on 10 June 2002.[171][169]
In 1987, Mahathir faced a serious challenge to his leadership whenTengku Razaleigh Hamzah contested the UMNO presidency, supported by former deputy Musa Hitam. Mahathir, backed by most party elites and the media, narrowly retained his position. Razaleigh's faction disputed the outcome, leading to legal battles that resulted in the courts declaring UMNO illegal in 1988.[172][173] Mahathir quickly formed UMNO Baru, sidelining his rivals who later formedSemangat 46 under Razaleigh.[174]
In foreign policy, Mahathir advocated for diversifying Malaysia's international relations by actively exploring non-traditional and lesser-known markets, believing that a trading nation should not rely solely on established partners.[175] By 1999, Malaysia's trade with small and weak countries of the South had generated RM90 billion in volume annually since the Government initiated approaches in this direction.[176] Mahathir prioritised economic diplomacy over ideological alignment. He instructed Malaysian diplomats to focus on trade and investment opportunities.[177]
He turned toEast Asia, promoting the “Look East Policy” and proposing the formation of theEast Asia Economic Caucus (EAEC) to deepen regional economic integration. While initially facing resistance, the idea laid the foundation for theASEAN Plus Three framework, which was formalised in 1999.[178]
Although Mahathir was a strident critic ofU.S. foreign policy during his tenure, American investment in Malaysia nevertheless boomed.[179] After becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir declined the American ambassador's suggestion to meet the U.S. president, saying it was not in his plans, and only visited the United States three years later in 1984 while he was in North America.[180] Mahathir said that his visit aimed to raise awareness of Malaysia among Americans and to encourage greater investment and trade ties with the United States.[181] During his first visit, Mahathir received a warm welcome with full presidential honours, including transport by Air Force and Marine One, and met with PresidentRonald Reagan in theOval Office as well as Vice PresidentGeorge H. W. Bush.[182] He held discussions with Reagan on bilateral relations, global economic recovery, and regional security, with both sides expressing a high degree of agreement and a commitment to strengthening cooperation, especially in trade and economic matters.[183]
The U.S., while occasionally at odds with Mahathir’s outspoken rhetoric, often prioritised strategic and economic considerations in its dealings with Malaysia. For example, theClinton administration chose not to penalise Malaysia under the1996 Helms-Burton Act after its state-ownedPetronas signed a US$2 billion deal withIran, citing American national interests.[184]
Mahathir was described as a strong U.S. ally in the war on terror but also a vocal critic of theIraq War.[185] In May 2002, Mahathir met with PresidentGeorge W. Bush inWashington, D.C., where they signed a memorandum of understanding on counterterrorism.[186] In March 2003, he condemned the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq asimperialistic and a violation ofinternational law, warning it would provoke widespread resentment, fuel terrorism, and undermine global respect for democracy and sovereignty;[187] Mahathir also tabled a parliamentary motion containing seven resolutions against the war, which received unanimous support, including from opposition parties.[188]
Mahathir and former Indonesian PresidentSuharto were close friends, frequently visiting each other during their respective tenures as national leaders.[189] He made an official visit toIndonesia less than a month after taking office.[190] In a joint communiqué issued after talks with Suharto, both countries urged the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops fromCambodia and called for a political solution inAfghanistan.[191]
During his tenure, Malaysia and Indonesia significantly expanded their bilateral economic cooperation, particularly in the sectors of investment and trade. Cooperation was notably strong in the plantation sector, with Malaysian companies investing heavily inpalm oil and rubber plantations across Indonesia, including inRiau,Kalimantan, andIrian Jaya.[192]
To facilitate and protect bilateral investments, both countries signed several agreements:
A Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement on 22 January 1991, aimed at eliminating the double taxation of income such as business profits, dividends, and royalties, thereby enhancing cross-border trade and investment flows.
An Investment Guarantee Agreement (IGA) on 22 January 1994, designed to protect investors from non-commercial risks such as expropriation and to ensure the free transfer of profits and capital between the two countries.[192]
Mahathir also played a role in promoting regional subnational economic zones that included Indonesia, such as:
In 1997, Mahathir and Suharto jointly proposed theMalacca Strait Bridge, a megaproject intended to physically connect Peninsular Malaysia withSumatra,[193] although the plan was never realised.[192]
Despite the strong economic ties, the1997 Asian Financial Crisis posed serious challenges. Many Malaysian firms scaled back or suspended operations in Indonesia, and land disputes emerged as Indonesian workers and locals reclaimed plantation lands previously held by Malaysian companies. However, Mahathir and the Indonesian leadership worked to stabilise and rebuild economic relations in the post-crisis period.[192]
In March 2000, Mahathir made a two-day official visit to Indonesia,[194] during which both countries signed eight memoranda of understanding covering sectors such as banking, infrastructure, information technology, air services, and oil and gas.[195] In response to Indonesia’s interest in Malaysia’sNew Economic Policy (NEP), the Malaysian government invited Indonesian officials to study its implementation.[196] Mahathir was the second ASEAN leader to visit Indonesia following the election of PresidentAbdurrahman Wahid, who received him upon arrival in Jakarta.[197]
On 28 August 2003, Mahathir met with Indonesian PresidentMegawati Sukarnoputri inKuching, where they discussed efforts to combatterrorism and address the continued influx of Indonesian undocumented migrants into Malaysia;[198] following the meeting, Mahathir announced that both countries had agreed on a range of strategies to curb the entry of Indonesianillegal immigrants.[199] In the same year that Mahathir was due to retire, during theASEAN Summit inBali, Megawati paid tribute to Mahathir ahead of his retirement, describing him as a steadfast friend and influential ASEAN leader;[200] Mahathir responded by expressing gratitude and reaffirming Malaysia's commitment to ASEAN.[201] Following this, media reports stated that Megawati was "in tears" at the summit due to her emotional tribute to Mahathir.[202]
A 1981 newspaper headline reporting Malaysia’s acquisition of Guthrie Corporation shares through the “Dawn Raid”, a strategic move backed by Mahathir’s administration to reclaim corporate assets from British control.
Shortly after taking office, Mahathir's administration experienced growing diplomatic tension with theUnited Kingdom. In September 1981, Malaysia’s state investment arm,Permodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB), executed a surprise acquisition—commonly referred to as the "Dawn Raid"—on theLondon Stock Exchange to obtain control ofGuthrie Corporation, a major British plantation company. In the week that followed, the United Kingdom’s Securities Industry Council amended its regulations governing large share acquisitions and corporate takeovers. Although British officials stated that the amendments had been under consideration for months, the timing prompted speculation within Malaysia that the changes were a direct response to the raid.[203]
On 2 October 1981, Mahathir confirmed that the Cabinet had adopted a new policy requiring all federal ministries, departments, and statutory bodies to seek non-British alternatives when procuring goods or consultancy services. Any proposal involving British firms would now be reviewed by the Prime Minister’s Department for approval. The directive also applied to joint ventures and partially British-owned companies. While Mahathir declined to publicly explain the rationale, the decision was widely interpreted as a reaction to perceived British hostility and regulatory retaliation. The policy, known as “Buy British Last”, was declared official federal policy, with state governments being informed accordingly.[203]British Trade MinisterPeter Rees, who had been visiting Kuala Lumpur at the time, expressed surprise at the announcement and remarked that it did not align with the tone of his earlier discussions with Malaysian officials.[204]
British companies were estimated to have lost approximately £15.5 million within the first few months of the campaign.[205]Anthony Kershaw, chairman of theBritish House of Commons Foreign Affairs Select Committee, estimated total losses to be between £20 million and £50 million.[205] In an effort to ease tensions caused by the campaign, Mahathir visited London in 10 March 1983 and met British Prime MinisterMargaret Thatcher at10 Downing Street.[206] The next day, he acknowledged shifts in British attitudes and indicated that Malaysia might review its policy towards Britain.[207] The campaign was officially withdrawn shortly thereafter.[208]
In 1984, the status ofCarcosa, a colonial-era residence gifted to theBritish government byTunku Abdul Rahman in 1956, became a source of diplomatic and political attention. Following a resolution at the UMNO General Assembly, UMNO Youth leaderAnwar Ibrahim called for the property's return, arguing that independence should not have entailed material concessions. Mahathir supported the initiative, stating that the government needed to consider the sentiments expressed by UMNO.[209] In May 1984, Mahathir announced that the British government had agreed to return Carcosa to Malaysia in exchange for a parcel of land in the Ampang diplomatic enclave, with no other compensation to be paid and the mansion to be repurposed as a guest house for state visitors.[210] The formal handover, however, was only finalised in 1987 following sustained pressure from the Malaysian government.[211]
In April 1985, Mahathir met with Thatcher during her official visit to Malaysia—the first by a British Prime Minister. During their meeting, Mahathir discussed British investment, trade liberalisation, and ASEAN's access to European markets. The visit also resulted in the resolution of a long-standing aviation dispute: the British government grantedMalaysian Airline System a fifth weekly landing slot atHeathrow Airport, while Malaysia agreed to reconsider a tax concession seen as favoring MAS.[212] Later that year, Mahathir attended his firstCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) inNassau.[213]
During his tenure, Malaysia hosted two major Commonwealth events attended byQueen Elizabeth II: the1989 CHOGM in Kuala Lumpur and the1998 Commonwealth Games, the first to be held in Asia. These visits reflected Malaysia’s growing engagement within the Commonwealth and marked the country's expanding diplomatic and economic profile in the international arena.[214]
On 29 July 1987, following visits to theUnited Kingdom andHungary, Mahathir began an official visit to theSoviet Union, where he was received at the airport inMoscow by Soviet Foreign MinisterEduard Shevardnadze.[215] During his meetings with Soviet officials, including a two-hour bilateral discussion with Soviet Communist Party Secretary-GeneralMikhail Gorbachev at theKremlin, both sides agreed to strengthen bilateral ties through regular high-level consultations and increased economic cooperation. They affirmed support for peaceful dispute resolution and endorsed Southeast Asia as a zone of peace, freedom, and neutrality. Discussions also covered Kampuchea, Afghanistan, theIran–Iraq War, and disarmament. Mahathir raised concerns about the Soviet stance on Antarctica, leading to an agreement for further dialogue between foreign ministers.[216]
Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union, Mahathir continued to strengthen Malaysia–Russia relations throughout the 1990s. Economic cooperation deepened, particularly in defense procurement, with Malaysia purchasing 18MiG-29 fighter jets fromRussia in 1995, contributing to a record bilateral trade volume of US$827.6 million that year.[217]
In 1998, following a meeting withKhabarovsk Krai Head of AdministrationViktor Ishayev in Kuala Lumpur during theAPEC summit, Mahathir abolished the visa requirement for Russians from the region for visits of up to one month.[217]
In August 1999, Mahathir visited the Russian Far East region of Khabarovsk Krai, where he met with local officials and emphasised the importance of fostering regional-level cooperation. He noted that due to Russia’s vast size, bilateral relations should not be limited to Moscow alone. Impressed by Khabarovsk's economic potential, he expressed interest in increasing Malaysian imports from the region and finding new markets for Malaysian exports, particularly fruits. He highlighted the need to address transportation and logistics costs to boost two-way trade. Mahathir also proposed promoting cultural exchanges among the younger generations to strengthen mutual understanding between the two countries.[217] Subsequently, he visited theRepublic of Buryatia in Russia at the invitation of its presidentLeonid Potapov, becoming the first foreign head of government to do so, where he explored cooperation in aero-defence technology, mining, and timber processing.[218]
SinceVladimir Putin assumed the presidency of Russia, Mahathir met with him on multiple occasions. These included meetings during the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit in Brunei in 2000 and again at the 2001 APEC summit inShanghai. Mahathir had planned to make an official visit to Moscow in September 2001, but the trip was postponed following theSeptember 11 attacks.[219] Following Mahathir’s official visit to Russia in March 2002,[220] Malaysia and Russia agreed to establish a Joint Economic Commission as well as the Malaysia-Russia and Russia-Malaysia Business Councils to follow up on decisions made during the bilateral meetings held in Moscow.[221]
Putin visited Malaysia twice in 2003 — first on an official trip in August, and later in October to participate in the OIC Summit.[222] The August visit saw Putin confer theOrder of Friendship on Mahathir and both leaders witness the signing of a major defence contract for 18 Su-30MKM fighter jets, along with agreements on scientific and technical cooperation and information and communications technology.[223] According to Viktor Kladov, a senior official from Rostec and a special envoy of Putin, Putin held Mahathir in high regard and expressed strong respect for his leadership, viewing him as a figure capable of propelling Malaysia towards becoming a great nation. Putin also valued Mahathir’s longstanding efforts, particularly since the early 1990s, in developing Malaysia’s aerospace and defence sectors, including the establishment of the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition (LIMA).[224]
Japan
On 25 November 2000, Mahathir shakes hands with Japanese Prime MinisterYoshirō Mori inSingapore
On 15 December 1981, Mahathir introduced the Look East Policy, identifying Japan as a model for development, and in 1983, during his visit to Japan, the policy received its first high-level endorsement when Mahathir and Foreign MinisterShintaro Abe formally affirmed bilateral cooperation.[225] After 1982, relations between the two countries further deepened.[226] Following the 1985Plaza Accord, the appreciation of theyen prompted Japanese companies to shift production overseas to lower costs, while Malaysia, facing a commodity crisis, adopted an export-oriented industrialisation policy—attracting substantial Japanese investment and boosting bilateral trade and official development assistance.[226]
Under Mahathir’s leadership, Japan emerged as Malaysia’s second-largest trading partner. Between 1997 and 2002, Malaysia recorded 643 Japanese investment projects valued at RM11.4 billion. Mahathir also secured low-interestOfficial Development Assistance (ODA) loans from Japan, supporting infrastructure and industrial development.[177]
Mahathir maintained close ties with a number of Japanese prime ministers and political figures. Among them were former Prime MinisterYasuhiro Nakasone, with whom he collaborated on initiatives such as theEast Asia Economic Caucus, and former Tokyo GovernorShintaro Ishihara, with whom he co-authored the bookThe Asia That Can Say No.[227]
In 2020, a monument dedicated to Mahathir was erected in theBosnian capitalSarajevo.
During theBosnian War, Mahathir was a vocal supporter of Bosnia,[228] and Malaysia accepted and granted asylum to Bosnian Muslim refugees.[229] In May 1992, Kuala Lumpur officially recognised Bosnia and Herzegovina, along withCroatia andSlovenia, as independent nations. Bosnia and Herzegovina, in turn, established its embassy in Kuala Lumpur two years later.[230] In 1994, Mahathir strongly condemned ethnic cleansing and the inaction of the international community, declaring that 'ethnic cleansing of Bosnia-Herzegovina must be stopped or forever must those who mouth platitudes about democracy and human rights cease and desist from their pretense at righteousness'.[231] In June 1995, he ordered Malaysian UN peacekeepers not to surrender and openly criticised theUnited Nations for its indecision and failure to protect civilians.[231] Subsequently, Malaysia became the first country to openly declare its willingness to break the United Nations arms embargo on Bosnia, with Mahathir announcing that Malaysia would supply weapons to the Bosnian government in defiance of the embargo, while criticising the UN andNATO for enabling Serbian aggression against Bosnian Muslims.[232]
Following the end of the war with the signing of theDayton Agreement in December 1995, Malaysia contributed to Bosnia's post-war reconstruction. The Bosmal Business Center in Sarajevo, built by Bosmal—a joint venture between Malaysian and Bosnian entities—was the tallest building in Bosnia until 2008. Mahathir stayed there during his visits to Sarajevo. Additionally, the Malaysian-Bosnian Friendship Bridge in Sarajevo, inaugurated by Mahathir himself, serves as a symbol of the ties between the two nations.[230]
In 2007, Mahathir was nominated for theNobel Peace Prize by four Bosnian civil groups led by former presidentEjup Ganić, in recognition of Malaysia’s political, economic, and humanitarian support for Bosnia during and after the Bosnian War.[233] In addition, a monument honouring Mahathir was unveiled in Sarajevo’s Kemal Monteno Park to acknowledge his and Malaysia’s contributions during the conflict and post-war reconstruction; the monument was completed in 2020.[234]
In the 1982 general election, the ruling coalition achieved its best-ever electoral result since Malaysia's independence in 1957.[235]
On 22 April 1982, Malaysia held a general election that had been called 16 months early by Mahathir. The ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) secured 131 of 154 parliamentary seats as final landslide results came in fromEast Malaysia.[236] The victory was attributed to Mahathir andMusa Hitam's popularity, effective campaigning, and strategic candidate selection.[237]
On 2 August 1986, Malaysia held a general election in which the ruling BN coalition, led by Mahathir, won 148 out of 177 parliamentary seats, securing a two-thirds majority. The strong mandate further consolidated Mahathir's leadership.[238]
On 21 October 1990, Malaysia held its eighth general election, in which Mahathir secured a third term with a landslide victory. His BN coalition won 121 out of 180 parliamentary seats, retaining a two-thirds majority. However, the opposition alliance led byTengku Razaleigh Hamzah won all 39 state seats inKelantan.[239]
On 24 April 1995, Malaysia held its ninth general election. The ruling BN, led by Mahathir, won a landslide victory by securing 162 out of 192 parliamentary seats, significantly increasing its majority from 125 seats in the previous term. The oppositionDemocratic Action Party (DAP) saw its representation reduced from 20 seats to just 9. The election was widely regarded as a personal triumph for Mahathir, who campaigned on his Vision 2020 agenda to transform Malaysia into a fully developed nation. The result also reinforced his position within the ruling coalition.[240]
On 29 November 1999, Malaysia held its tenth general election. The ruling BN coalition, led by Mahathir, won 149 out of 193 parliamentary seats, securing more than a two-thirds majority.[241] Mahathir, at a press conference after the victory, said that the result was a clear indication that "the Barisan Nasional is still the party of choice of the people of Malaysia".[242] The election reaffirmed his leadership and the coalition's strong mandate,[243] while the opposition DAP suffered significant losses, including the defeat of senior leaders such as Secretary-GeneralLim Kit Siang and Vice ChairmanKarpal Singh.[244]
Additionally, Mahathir had a 16–9 win–loss record in parliamentary by-elections while leading the ruling coalition, representing a 64 percent success rate. In one instance—Lipis in 1997—the BN coalition won uncontested. Across the 24 contested by-elections during his leadership, the ruling coalition averaged 54.37 percent of the vote share.[245]
Personal leave
In September 1981, shortly after becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir took a two-week private vacation toSpain andPortugal, stating that the trip was strictly personal and involved no official meetings.[246] In September 1983, Mahathir announced that he would take a two-week personal leave starting, during which he would travel toEurope for a holiday with his family. Speaking to reporters, he remarked, “I am only human. But although I am entitled to two months' holiday a year, I am only taking two weeks off.”[247] Following acoronary bypass surgery in January 1989, Mahathir took a three-week vacation abroad toLondon, Spain, andMorocco, before returning to work on 4 April.[248]
On 19 May 1997, Mahathir began a two-month leave of absence,[249] during which Deputy Prime MinisterAnwar Ibrahim was appointed as Acting Prime Minister.[250] He dismissed speculation that the leave was due to health reasons, stating that he would continue to carry out certain official duties during his time off.[251] During the vacation, Mahathir also denied that Anwar’s appointment as Acting Prime Minister was part of a succession plan, though he acknowledged that he would eventually have to step down.[252] Despite being on leave, Mahathir remained active on the international stage. He promoted the Multimedia Super Corridor in the United Kingdom, attended a summit of eight Islamic developing countries inIstanbul, became the first Malaysian Prime Minister to make an official visit toLebanon, and held bilateral talks inHungary with Prime MinisterGyula Horn. Mahathir also participated in an UMNO Supreme Council meeting via video conference from London. His continued presence in foreign media and official engagements countered speculation that the extended leave signaled a retreat from political leadership.[253][253]
In late June 2002, following his announcement of resignation during the UMNO General Assembly, Mahathir took a 10-day personal leave inItaly.[255] During this period, Deputy Prime MinisterAbdullah Ahmad Badawi served as acting Prime Minister, and Mahathir had already handed over some of his Ministry of Finance responsibilities to Abdullah in the preceding weeks.[256] On 3 July, he returned to Malaysia and was greeted by a crowd of approximately 5,000 people at the Royal Malaysian Air Force base in Subang, including government officials, students, and supporters.[255]
In March 2003, Mahathir began a two-month leave of absence, during which Abdullah served as Acting Prime Minister and Acting Finance Minister.[257] He commenced his vacation after attending theOrganisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) emergency summit in Doha, departing from the city with his wife, Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali.[258] During the leave, he also made a two-day official visit toBrazil, his second visit to the country after a previous trip in 1991.[259] Mahathir returned to Malaysia on 2 May after a two-month vacation abroad and resumed official duties a few days later.[260]
Retirement and succession
In May and June 2002, Mahathir made visits to the United States and theVatican, respectively.[261][262] On 22 June 2002, Mahathir unexpectedly announced his resignation during the UMNO general assembly.[263] However, the decision was retracted less than an hour later following emotional appeals from his colleagues and supporters.[263] On 26 June, the secretary-general of UMNO,Mohd Khalil Yaakob, announced that Mahathir's resignation would take effect only after theOrganisation of Islamic Conference Summit in Kuala Lumpur in October 2003,[264] stating that the reins of government would then pass to his deputy,Abdullah Ahmad Badawi.[265]
On 31 October 2003, as Mahathir step down after 22 years in office,[266][267] hundreds of tribute messages appeared in Malaysian newspapers in the weeks leading up to his retirement, hailing him as a national hero for overseeing Malaysia's rapid economic development and for giving the country a stronger voice on the global stage. A 10-volume encyclopedia of his ideas was launched in bothArabic and English. His successor, Abdullah, said that Mahathir's legacy would be reflected in "an ever-flowing cornucopia of ideas, thoughts and opinions on a wide range of issues and topics", and added that "laymen and intellectuals will find pearls of wisdom in his ideas and thoughts", while also noting that "Malaysians and Muslims will benefit enormously from reading and re-reading his speeches".[268]
Following his retirement as Prime Minister, Mahathir and his wife, Siti Hasmah, were both conferred theSeri Maharaja Mangku Negara (S.M.N.), the nation's highest federal award, which carries the honorific title "Tun".[269] In recognition of Mahathir's contributions to the nation, the government under Abdullah conferred upon him the titleBapa Pemodenan Malaysia (Father of Malaysia's Modernisation).[270] As part of the tribute, Galeri Sri Perdana—the former official residence of Mahathir prior to his move to Putrajaya—was reopened as a national gallery highlighting his life and tenure as Malaysia's longest-serving Prime Minister.[271][272]
Retirement and post-first term premiership (2003–2015)
On his retirement, Mahathir was named aGrand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm, the highest honor in Malaysia, allowing him to adopt the title of "Tun".[273][269] Under Mahathir's leadership, Malaysia was transformed into an industrialising nation.[274] He pledged to leave politics "completely", rejecting an emeritus role inAbdullah's cabinet.[275] Abdullah immediately made his mark as a quieter and less adversarial premier. With stronger religious credentials than Mahathir, he beat back PAS's surge in the 1999 election and lead the Barisan Nasional in the2004 election to its biggest win ever, taking 199 of 219 parliamentary seats.[276] On 23 October,Mingguan Malaysia, a Sunday edition ofUtusan Malaysia, published an exclusive interview with Mahathir, marking his first since retiring as Prime Minister.[277]
After retiring, Mahathir maintained a busy schedule,[278] engaging in various activities and speaking engagements both locally and internationally.[279] In 2005, Russian PresidentVladimir Putin visited him at his private residence, where they held a four-hour meeting discussing Malaysia's economic transformation and development strategies.[179] He emphasized the importance of staying active, stating, "Never retire. You have to work. When you work, it will keep you alive."[278] His office at thePerdana Leadership Foundation and residence at theMines Resort City, as well as expenses for meal allowances, escorts, bodyguards, a medical officer, and a special assistant during overseas trips, are funded by the government under the Member of Parliament (Remuneration) Act 1980 (Act 237).[280]
Mahathir was the CEO and chairman, and hence a senior adviser, for many flagship Malaysian companies such asProton,Perdana Leadership Foundation and Malaysia's government-owned oil and gas companyPetronas.[281] He did not receive any remuneration for his advisory positions.[282] He was also madeUniversiti Teknologi Petronas (UTP) Chancellor in 2004, succeedingRaja Mohar Raja Badiozaman.[283] On 15 June of the same year, Mahathir was appointed chairman of the NAM Business Council International Advisory Panel.[284] In 2006, Mahathir co-founded The Loaf bakery with Motoko Resources Sdn Bhd, opening its first store in Telaga Harbor,Langkawi, before expanding to 12 outlets in locations such as KLCC,Pavilion, Sogo, andEmpire Shopping Gallery.[285] He also served as The Loaf's chairman.[286]
Despite his business ventures, Mahathir remained an influential figure, and his views on national matters continued to draw attention. Mahathir and Abdullah had a major fallout over Proton in 2005. While Abdullah was attempting to reform the company and implemented high importtariffs on foreign cars, Mahathir accused Abdullah's government ofcronyism in relation to import licences.[287] Proton's chief executive, a Mahathir ally, had been sacked by the company's board. With Abdullah's blessing, Proton then sold one of its prise assets, the motorcycle companyMV Agusta, which was bought on Mahathir's advice.[288]
Mahathir criticised the awarding of import permits for foreign cars, which he claimed were causing Proton's domestic sales to suffer,[289] and attacked Abdullah for cancelling the construction of a second causeway between Malaysia and Singapore.[290]
Mahathir complained that his views were not getting sufficient airing by theMalaysian press.[291] In response, he began writing a column forMalaysiakini and starting his own blog.[292] He unsuccessfully sought election from his local party division to be a delegate to UMNO's general assembly in 2006, where he planned to initiate a challenge to Abdullah's leadership.[293] Mahathir had previously missed the UMNO General Assembly twice since 2006 for health reasons.[294][295] After the2008 election, in which UMNO lost its two-thirds majority in parliament, Mahathir resigned from the party.[296] When Abdullah was replaced by his deputyNajib Razak in 2009, Mahathir re-joined the party[297] and urged all former members to follow his move.[298] Before the2013 general election, Mahathir promised to keep the government in check and ensure it fulfilled its manifesto promises, vowing to protest and fight against it if it failed.[299]
Mahathir met with Azerbaijani PresidentIlham Aliyev inBaku, 2 March 2012
Mahathir established the Kuala Lumpur Initiative to Criminalise War Forum in an effort to end war globally,[300] as well as theKuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission to investigate the activities of the United States,Israel and its allies inIraq,Lebanon and thePalestinian territories.[301] In March 2015, Mahathir attended a conference where he stated his belief in a "New World Order", where an elite would attempt rule the planet in a single world government, and exterminate billions of humans.[302][303]
Return to politics (2015–2018)
On 18 March 2015, Mahathir and Japanese Ambassador Makio Miyagawa attended the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition (LIMA’15)
By 2015, even at 90 years old, Mahathir remained sharp and combative.[304] He repeatedly called for prime ministerNajib Razak to resign over the1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal (1MDB).[305][306] On 30 August 2015, he and Siti Hasmah attended theBersih 4 rally, a mass protest organised in response to the scandal.[307] In 2016, Mahathir chaired theMalaysian Citizens' Declaration, which brought together several political figures and non-governmental organisations in calling for Najib's resignation.[308][309] In this declaration, Mahathir listed 37 points.[310] Later, the Citizens' Declaration reached one million signatures in May of the same year.[311] In the2016 Sungai Besar by-election, he supportedAmanah and other Pakatan Harapan leaders, lending his influence to the opposition coalition.[312]
Mahathir left UMNO in 2016, and formedParti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU).[313][314] The new party was officially registered on 9 September 2016, and Mahathir became its chairman.[315] By 2017, he had officially joined the opposition coalition Pakatan Harapan. Negotiations then took place between different factions of the coalition for Mahathir to become the chairman and prime ministerial candidate.[316] He assumed the position of chairman on 14 July 2017, despite reservations from supporters ofAnwar Ibrahim, who could not contest in polls himself while imprisoned.[317][318]
In 2016, Mahathir had his police outriders withdrawn after his privileges were revoked due to his participation in anti-government events.[319] A year later, in 2017, the government further withdrew his personal bodyguard service provided by the policeSpecial Action Unit (UTK), following the earlier termination of his cook and office assistant's contracts.[320] This decision by the government also drew criticism from various parties.[321][322] However, Inspector-General of PoliceMohamad Fuzi Harun denied this, stating that only ordinary police officers had been recalled, while Mahathir's bodyguard service from the elite UTK remained intact.[323] The Prime Minister's Department also refuted this claim, stating that it was still paying for 21 staff at Mahathir's home and office.[324]
In early 2018, Mahathir was announced as Pakatan Harapan's prime ministerial candidate for theupcoming general election.Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, wife of his former political enemy Anwar, ran as his deputy.[325] Mahathir's election promise was to seek apardon for Anwar, in order to allow him to take over as prime minister after an interim period.[326][327][328]
Pakatan Harapan defeated Barisan Nasional in the2018 general election.[329][330][331] Concerns for asmooth power transition emerged as Najib declared that no party had achieved a majority.[332] TheNational Palace of Malaysia subsequently confirmed Mahathir would be sworn in as Malaysia's seventh prime minister, refuting any claims of delaying the appointment.[333][334] Immediately after the declaration of the results, people in Kuala Lumpur expressed their joy in celebration of the historic victory.[335] Mahathir announced a two-day public holiday, adding: 'But there will be no holidays for the winners.'[336]
Mahathir had promised to "restore therule of law", and reopen investigations into the1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal, telling the press that Najib would face consequences if found guilty of corruption.[345] Mahathir instructed theDepartment of Immigration to bar Najib and his wife, the notoriously extravagantRosmah Mansor, from leaving the country after they attempted to fly to Indonesia.[346]
Mahathir formed his cabinet of 29 ministers in June 2018.[347] He abolished the unpopularGoods and Services Tax, reducing it from six to zero per cent.[348] Mahathir implemented a "no gifts policy," stating that he would only accept food, flowers, and fruits, while prohibiting government officials from receiving any other gifts to prevent corruption.[349]
He also vowed to cut fiscal spending by firing thousands ofcivil servants, cancelling an expensiveKuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail link and cutting back on large infrastructure projects initiated under Najib.[350] Malaysia'sfreedom of the press improved slightly under Mahathir's tenure, and the country's rank rose in thePress Freedom Index.[351] The government announcedpalm oil cultivation would be limited to 6.55 million hectares by 2023, and began a lobbying campaign to improve palm oil's reputation abroad.[352]
On 20 June 2018, Mahathir met the father of murderedMongolian womanAltantuya Shaariibuu and agreed that the case of her murder should be reopened.[353][354]
A year into his term, Mahathir's approval ratings had fallen as the economy slowed and several planned reforms, such as abolishingcapital punishment and theSedition Act 1948, were not realised amid divisions in the coalition.[355] Mahathir announced theShared Prosperity Vision 2030 in October 2019, which set out for Malaysia to become ahigh income country by 2030.[356][357] Another priority of his administration was a more transparent approach todefence. The government prepared the country's first defence policywhite paper outlining long-term plans for the country.[358]
Mahathir's administration committed to retaining good relations with China,[372] but promised to review allBelt and Road Initiative projects in Malaysia that were initiated by the previous government. He characterised these as "unequal treaties". His government suspended work on theEast Coast Rail Link,[372][373] which recommenced after terms had been renegotiated.[374] Mahathir cancelled approximately $2.8 billion worth of deals withChina Petroleum Pipeline Bureau altogether, citing high repayment costs.[373][375]
On 13 February 2020, Mahathir spoke with Chinese PresidentXi Jinping to express solidarity and discuss cooperation in response to theCOVID-19 outbreak.[376][377] Prior to this, Mahathir had expressed his hopes that 2020, the 'Year of Culture and Tourism' between Malaysia and China, would further strengthen the ties and friendship between the two nations.[378]
By late 2019, disagreements emerged within Pakatan Harapan about Mahathir's planned handover of power toAnwar Ibrahim, eventually culminating in a political crisis in 2020. Mahathir and a faction of the coalition felt that Anwar would be unable to command a parliamentary majority.[379][380] MPs supporting Anwar demanded a timeframe for Mahathir's resignation and handover of power.[379]
In February 2020, MPs opposed to Anwar taking over met and agreed to form a new government.[379][381][382][383] Anwar told the media that he had been "betrayed".[384][385] Anwar and Mahathir met to clarify the situation, where Mahathir insisted he had no involvement in a new government.[379][386][387]
Mahathir, refusing to work with UMNO leaders, submitted his resignation to the Agong,Abdullah of Pahang, on 24 February 2020.[388][389] The Agong appointed himinterim prime minister until a replacement could be agreed.[390][391][392]BERSATU PresidentMuhyiddin Yassin declared the party's withdrawal from Pakatan Harapan; Mahathir also resigned from the party in response.[379] The next day, Mahathir reported to work as usual in his new role as caretaker prime minister.[393] During his interim premiership, he introduced the 2020 Economic Stimulus Package to counter the economic impact ofCOVID-19,[394] based on three strategies: mitigating its impact, spurring people-centric economic growth, and promoting quality investments.[395]
On 29 February, the Agong appointed Muhyiddin prime minister, determining that he was most likely to be able to hold the support of a majority in parliament.[396] Mahathir unsuccessfully attempted to challenge this with the Agong, but eventually left the prime minister's office an hour before Muhyiddin was sworn in.[379][397]
Post-second term premiership (2020–present)
On 15 April 2022, Mahathir met with Takahashi Katsuhiko, Ambassador of Japan to Malaysia
Despite his advanced age and having stepped down as prime minister, Mahathir remains active on the international stage, frequently traveling, delivering speeches, and continuing to voice his views and influence both domestically and globally.[398] He formed theHomeland Fighter's Party (PEJUANG) in August 2020.[399] Four other MPs joined the new party, including Mahathir's sonMukhriz. The party was registered in July 2021.[400][401] In August 2021, Mahathir and other MPs protested inMerdeka Square, calling for Muhyiddin's resignation over the government's response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, after being blocked from entering parliament by police.[402][403]
In September 2022, Mahathir said he was open to becoming the prime minister for a third time if there were no other suitable candidates.[408][409] Having previously said he would not defend his Langkawi parliamentary seat,[410][411] he announced he would contest the2022 general election.[412][413] In the election on 19 November, Mahathir lost his seat andelection deposit, marking his first defeat in 53 years.[414] No candidate from PEJUANG orGerakan Tanah Air secured a seat.[415][416] He later said that his party's plans "had to be dropped" and he would shift his focus to writing aboutMalaysian history.[417][418]
In February 2023, Mahathir and 13 other members of PEJUANG (leaving his own son as the sole leader of that party) left the party and joinedParti Bumiputera Perkasa Malaysia (Putra).[419][420] Later in 2023, Mahathir began promoting a "Malay Proclamation", aimed at uniting Malays. He met with PAS and PN leaders to garner support for the 12-point document listing political, economic and social issues.[421][422][423] Mahathir was questioned by police over this campaign under theMalaysian Penal Code, for carrying out "activities that undermine parliamentary democracy".[424] Mahathir also left GTA, criticising the coalition for its poor performance in the election.[425] He supportedPerikatan Nasional, the coalition that had ousted him in 2020, in sixstate elections and was named its "unofficial adviser" for the four state governments under its control.[426]
On 31 August 2024, Mahathir attended theMerdeka Day celebration in Putrajaya in his personal capacity, as he was not officially invited by the government. His presence at the event, where he was warmly received by the crowd, sparked public debate. Prominent academic Chandra Muzaffar criticised the government's decision, describing it as a breach of Malaysian etiquette and values, particularly given Mahathir's status as the country's longest-serving prime minister. He stated that the exclusion contradicted the principles of theRukun Negara, which emphasised courtesy and morality, and called for a clear explanation from the government.[427]
In April 2025, Mahathir, accompanied by his son Mukhriz, his daughterMarina, and a group of others, arrived at theNational Mosque to attend the state funeral of his successor,Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
In February 2025, Mahathir's official Facebook account confirmed that his X account (@chedetofficial) had been hacked, resulting in a post promoting cryptocurrency, and efforts were underway to recover it.[428][429] In April 2025, following thePutra Heights pipeline fire inSubang Jaya, Mahathir visited the Incident Control Post and urged the public not to make premature accusations before the investigation was completed.[430] Shortly thereafter, he also attended the state funeral of former Prime MinisterAbdullah Ahmad Badawi.[431] In an interview in May 2025, he criticisedDonald Trump's tariff policies and described him as "living in an old world" over his foreign policy.[432]
Mahathir is a vocal critic ofneoliberalism[433] and the Western world.[440][435] In 2011, Mahathir suggested that theSeptember 11 attacks might have beenstaged by the United States government.[441][442] Mahathir condemned theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights in 1997, suggesting it be revised to place greater importance on economic growth overcivil liberties.[443] In 2019, Mahathir said that Malaysians should learn from the hard work of China's citizens, which enabled their nation to achieve technological advancement within a few decades.[444] In 2025, he said that China would overtake the United States and remain the world’s top power in the long term, while downplaying India’s potential to compete with China on a global scale.[445]
In the aftermath of the2020 Nice stabbing andmurder of Samuel Paty, Mahathir posted remarks on his blog. Mahathir said that the attacks were wrong and against Islam, but also argued that Muslims had a right to be angry and kill French people for past massacres committed by the French. Mahathir's post was later circulated on hisTwitter account, where it was labelled for "glorifying violence".[448]
Mahathir was criticised for stoking tensions and hatred by the former Australian ambassador to FranceBrendan Berne, Australian prime ministerScott Morrison, and Frenchsecretary of state for digital affairsCédric O.[449] Malaysian cleric and politicianFathul Bari Mat Jahya also condemned Mahathir's remarks.[450][451] Mahathir responded that his comments were taken out of context and he was not "promoting massacre of the French". Facebook and Twitter later removed his posts.[452]
I don't smoke, I don't drink, and I don't overeat. I eat just enough to keep me going. Once people hit a certain age, there's a tendency to become overweight. Many develop a big stomach, and to feel satisfied, they eat and drink too much, which puts a strain on their heart. I've stayed around 62-64 kg for years, and I can still wear clothes I had made 30 years ago.
Mahathir follows a disciplined lifestyle. He attributes his longevity and health to self-discipline, a controlled diet, regular reading to keep his mind active, and avoidingovereating, which he believes leads toobesity and related diseases.[454] He has consistently maintained his weight at 62 kg for many years.[455] His hobbies includesailing,horse riding, andcarpentry, and he has built a functioningsteam train and a boat.[14] An avid reader, his favorite authors areWilbur Smith andJeffrey Archer.[456]
Mahathir and Siti Hasmah with Indonesian PresidentJoko Widodo and his wifeIriana, 29 June 2018
Mahathir met his wife, Siti Hasmah, during their medical studies, and they married in 1956. They have four biological children—Marina, Mirzan,Mokhzani, andMukhriz—and later adopted three more—Melinda, Maizura, and Mazhar.[457] In 2021, they celebrated their 65th wedding anniversary.[458] His granddaughter, Ineza, has described him as a family-oriented man who enjoys spending time with his grandchildren.[459]
Mahathir is widely known for his workaholic nature.[460] Despite his demanding schedule, he enjoys simple pleasures such as cooking and driving his family to restaurants.[461] He is also a fan of the song "My Way"[462] and owns a stable of horses, most of which were gifted to him.[463]
His childhood home inAlor Setar, namedRumah Kelahiran Mahathir Mohamad, was restored and opened to the public in 1992, showcasing personal memorabilia from his early life.[464]
Over the years, Mahathir has faced various health challenges, includingheart conditions and infections, requiring multiple hospitalisations.[465] He has also been the target ofsecurity threats during his political career, though none have caused him serious harm.
Mahathir neitherdrinks alcohol nor smokes.[466] On 10 July 2025, he celebrated his 100th birthday by making a special live podcast at his office inPutrajaya. He described his centennial as being a "normal day".[467] The occasion was marked by widespread public attention and official greetings, including from Prime MinisterAnwar Ibrahim and other members of hisunity government.[468] Former Singapore Prime MinisterLee Hsien Loong also extended his birthday wishes to Mahathir.[469]
Cultural depictions
In 2015, a 30.48-metre-wide mural of Mahathir was painted in Jalan Pekan Melayu, Alor Setar, featuring him alongside thePetronas Twin Towers andProton Saga, symbolising his legacy as Malaysia's 'Father of Modernisation'.
Mahathir has been depicted in various cultural forms, reflecting his role in Malaysian history. In 2010, the musicalMahathir, the Musical portrayed his life from his early years to his political career, withEsma Daniel [ms] in the lead role. The production was well received and had an extended run. A sequel followed in 2011. In 2012, the playTeater Tun Siti Hasmah focused on his wife,Siti Hasmah, highlighting her career as a doctor and first lady, withNazim Othman [ms] and Esma Daniel portraying Mahathir. A mural of Mahathir was unveiled inAlor Setar,Kedah in 2015. Internationally, a monument dedicated to Mahathir was inaugurated inSarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina in December 2020, created by artist Enes Sivac. The monument includes an excerpt from Mahathir's speech at the International Conference of Parliamentarians on Bosnia-Herzegovina.
^Three of them are the adopted children (Melinda, Maizura, and Mazhar), while the other four are his biological children with Siti Hasmah (Marina, Mirzan, Mokhzani, and Mukhriz).
^Mahathir's birth certificate gives his date of birth as 20 December. He was actually born on 10 July; his biographer Barry Wain explains that 20 December was an "arbitrary" date chosen by Mahathir's father for official purposes.[3]
Morais, J. Victor (1982).Mahathir: A Profile in Courage. Eastern Universities Press.OCLC8687329.
Sankaran, Ramanathan; Mohd Hamdan Adnan (1988).Malaysia's 1986 General Election: the Urban-Rural Dichotomy. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.ISBN981-3035-12-9.
Stewart, Ian (2003).The Mahathir Legacy: a Nation Divided, a Region at Risk. Allen & Unwin.ISBN1-86508-977-X.
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