Mahajanapadas | |||||||||||||||||
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| c. 600 BCE –c. 345 BCE | |||||||||||||||||
![Map of the 16 Mahājanapadas.[1]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMahajanapadas_(c._500_BCE).png) Map of the 16 Mahājanapadas.[1] | |||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Prakrits andSanskrit | ||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Historical Vedic religion Buddhism Jainism | ||||||||||||||||
| Government | aristocratic republic,monarchy | ||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Iron Age | ||||||||||||||||
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TheMahājanapadas[a] were sixteenkingdoms andaristocraticrepublics that existed inancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE, during thesecond urbanisation period.[2][3]
The 6th–5th centuries BCE are often regarded as a major turning point in earlyIndian history. During this period, India's first large cities since the demise of theIndus Valley civilization arose. It was also the time of the rise ofsramana movements (includingBuddhism andJainism), which challenged the religious orthodoxy of theVedic period.
Two of the Mahājanapadas were most probablygaṇasaṅghas (aristocratic republics), and others had forms of monarchy. AncientBuddhist texts like theAnguttara Nikaya[4] make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics that had developed and flourished in a belt stretching fromGandhara in the northwest toAnga in the east toAsmaka in the southern part of theIndian subcontinent. They included parts of the trans-Vindhyan region,[5] and all had developed prior to the rise of Buddhism in Ancient India.[6]
Archaeologically, this period has been identified as corresponding in part to theNorthern Black Polished Ware culture.[7]
The term "Janapada" literally means thefoothold of a people. The fact thatJanapada is derived fromJana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana people for a settled way of life. This process of settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of theBuddha andPāṇini. The Pre-Buddhist northern Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas, demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Pāṇini's "Ashtadhyayi",Janapada stands for country andJanapadin for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after theKshatriya people (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) that existed prior to the time of the Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The BuddhistAnguttara Nikaya, at several places,[16] gives a list of sixteen great states:[17]
Another Buddhist text, theDigha Nikaya, mentions twelve Mahajanapadas from the above list and omits four of them (Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja).[18]
Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, addsKalinga to the list and substitutesYona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas fromUttarapatha.[19][20]
TheVyākhyāprajñapti (or theBhagavati Sutra), a sutra ofJainism, gives a different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas:
The author of theBhagavati Sutra (or theVyākhyāprajñapti) has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of the far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of theBhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable."[21]
The first reference to theAngas is found in theAtharvaveda where they find mention along with theMagadhas,Gandharis and the Mujavats, apparently as a despised people. TheJaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group ofAryan people. It mentions the principal cities ofancient India.[22] It was also a great center of trade and commerce, and its merchants regularly sailed to distantSuvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time ofBimbisara. This was the one and only conquest of Bimbisara.
The country of Assaka or the Ashmaka tribe was located inDakshinapatha or southern India. It included areas in present-dayAndhra Pradesh,Telangana, andMaharashtra.[23] InGautama Buddha's time, many of the Assakas were located on the banks of theGodavari River (south of theVindhya mountains). The capital of the Assakas was Potana or Potali, which corresponds present-dayBodhan in Telangana and Paudanya ofMahabharata.[24] In Maharashtra its capital is located in Potali which corresponds to present day Nandura, Buldhana district. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Pāṇini. They are placed in the north-west in theMarkendeya Purana and theBrhat Samhita. The river Godavari separated the country of the Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or Alakas). The country of Assaka lay outside the pale ofMadhyadesa. It was located on a southern high road, theDakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and abutted Avanti.[25]
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The country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India in the post era of Mahavira and Buddha, the other three beingKosala,Vatsa andMagadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by the riverNarmada. Initially,Mahishamati (Mahissati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, andUjjaini (Sanskrit: Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times ofMahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country of Avanti roughly corresponded to modernMalwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of today'sMadhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road calledDakshinapatha which extended fromRajagriha to Pratishthana (modernPaithan). Avanti was an important centre of Buddhism and some of the leadingtheras andtheris were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by kingShishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of the Magadhan empire.[26]
The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the mountains of Nepal and the other inBundelkhand nearKausambi. According to old authorities, Chedis lay nearYamuna midway between the kingdom ofKurus andVatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the banks of the riverNarmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati ofMahabharata, was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient people of India and are mentioned in theRigveda, with their king Kashu Chaidya.[27]
The location of the capital city,Suktimati, has not been established with certainty. HistorianHem Chandra Raychaudhuri andF. E. Pargiter believed that it was in the vicinity ofBanda, Uttar Pradesh.[27] ArchaeologistDilip Kumar Chakrabarti has proposed that Suktimati can be identified as the ruins of a largeearly historical city, at a place with the modern-day name Itaha, on the outskirts ofRewa, Madhya Pradesh.[28]
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The wool of theGandharis is referred to in theRigveda. The Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of theKurus against thePandavas in theMahabharata war. The Gandharas were furious people, well-trained in the art of war. According toPuranic traditions, this Janapada was founded byGandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of the Rigvedic period and one of the five sons of king Yayati of lunar dynasty. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara.Taksashila andPushkalavati, the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons ofBharata, a prince ofAyodhya and younger brother of LordRama. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti (a.k.a. Kalika) at the end ofKali Yuga. Pāṇini mentioned both the Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in hisAshtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also includedKashmira.[30] Hecataeus of Miletus (549–468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura or Purushapura, i.e., modern day Peshawar) as aGandharic city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom ofKashmira. TheJataka also gives another nameChandahara for Gandhara.
Gandhara Mahajanapada ofBuddhist traditions included territories of eastAfghanistan, and north-west of thePunjab (modern districts ofPeshawar (Purushapura) andRawalpindi). Its later capital was Taksashila (Prakrit forTaxila). The Taksashila University was a renowned centre of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Pāṇini, the Indian genius of grammar andKautiliya are the world-renowned products of Taxila University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in the middle of the 6th century BCE was the contemporary of kingBimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. According to one group of scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were cognate people.[31][32][33] It is also contended that the Kurus, Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people.[34] According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and were located coterminously, hence influencing each other's language.[35] Naturally, they may have once been a cognate people.[36] Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring regions ofKashmira andKamboja.[37]
Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja is variously associated with theGandhara,Darada and theBahlika (Bactria). Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of theHindukush. The original Kamboja was located in easternOxus country as neighbor to Bahlika, but with time, someclans of the Kambojas appear to have crossed the Hindukush and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find mention in theEdicts ofAshoka. The evidence in theMahabharata and inPtolemy's Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements.[38] The cis-Hindukush region fromNurestan up toRajauri in southwest ofKashmir sharing borders with theDaradas and theGandharas constituted theKamboja country.[39] The capital ofKamboja was probablyRajapura (modern Rajori) in the south-west of Kashmir. TheKamboja Mahajanapada of theBuddhist traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush branch of ancient Kambojas.[40]
The trans-Hindukush region including thePamirs andBadakhshan which shared borders with theBahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas andRishikas ofSogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted theParama-Kamboja country.[41] The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pureIranian but a large section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under Indian cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities.[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52]
The Kambojas were also a well known republican people sinceEpic times. TheMahabharata refers to severalgaṇaḥ (or Republics) of the Kambojas.[53]Kautiliya'sArthashastra[54] attestes the Kambojas republican character andAshoka's Edict No. XIII also testifies the presence of the Kambojas along with the Yavanas.[55] Pāṇini's Sutras,[56] though tend to convey that the Kamboja of Pāṇini was aKshatriya monarchy, but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king consul) only.[57] According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or thenorth-west division ofJambudvipa.
In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the 6th/5th century BCE, the growing state of the Magadhas emerged as the predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in thePuranas laments that Magadhan emperorMahapadma Nanda exterminated allKshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatriya being left thereafter. This refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry. (The Nandas usurped the throne ofShishunaga dynastyc. 345 BCE, thus founding theNanda Empire.)[58]
The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with the Magadhan state untilChandragupta andKautilya arose on the scene. But these nations also fell prey to theAchaemenids ofPersia during the reign ofCyrus II (558–530 BCE) or in the first year ofDarius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richestsatrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus II is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modernBegram) inParopamisade.
The kingdom was located in the region around its capitalVaranasi, bounded by the Varuna and Assi rivers in the north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Severaljataka tales bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities in India and speak highly of its prosperity and opulence. These stories tell of the long struggle for supremacy between Kashi and the three kingdoms ofKosala,Anga andMagadha. Although KingBrihadratha of Kashi conqueredKosala, Kashi was later incorporated intoKosala byKing Kansa during Buddha's time. The Kashis along with the Kosalas and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied people. TheMatsya Purana andAlberuni spell Kashi asKausika andKaushaka respectively. All other ancient texts read Kashi.[citation needed]
The country of Kosala was located to the north-west of Magadha, with its capital atAyodhya. Its territory corresponded to the modernAwadh (or Oudh) in Central and EasternUttar Pradesh. It had the riverGanges for its southern, the riverGandak (Narayani) for its eastern, and theHimalaya mountains for its northern boundary.
Later, the kingdom was ruled by the famous king Prasenajit during the era of Mahavira and Buddha, followed by his son Vidudabha (Virudhaka). King Prasenajit was highly educated. His position was further improved by a matrimonial alliance with Magadha: his sister was married to Bimbisara and part of Kasi was given as dowry. There was, however, a struggle for supremacy between kingPasenadi (Prasenajit) and kingAjatashatru of Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation ofLiccavis became conquered by Magadha. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler.Ayodhya,Saketa,Banaras, andSravasti were the chief cities of Kosala.[citation needed]
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ThePuranas trace the origin of Kurus from thePuru-Bharata family. Kuru was born after 25 generations of Puru's dynasty, and after 15 generations of Kuru, Kauravas and Pandavas were born. Aitareya Brahmana locates the Kurus inMadhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus as living beyond the Himalayas. According to the Buddhist text Sumangavilasini,[60] the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana attests thatKuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modernThanesar, state ofDelhi, andMeerut district ofUttar Pradesh. According to theJatakas, the capital of the Kurus wasIndraprastha (Indapatta) near modern Delhi which extended seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of the Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in theVedic period but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with theYadavas, the Bhojas, Trigratas, and the Panchalas. There is aJataka reference to king Dhananjaya, introduced as a prince from the lineage ofYudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in the earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to a republican form of government during the 6th to 5th centuries BCE. In the 4th century BCE,Kautiliya'sArthashastra also attests the Kurus following theRajashabdopajivin (Royal Consul) constitution.
TheMagadha was one of the most prominent and prosperous of Mahajanapadas.[61]
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The kingdom of theMagadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts ofPatna andGaya in southernBihar and parts ofBengal in the east. The capital city of Pataliputra was bound in the north by the river Ganges, in the east by the river Champa, in the south by theVindhya mountains and in the west by the river Sona. During Buddha's time its boundaries included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagaha (modern Rajgir in the Nalanda district of Bihar). The other names for the city were Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center ofJainism in ancient times. TheFirst Buddhist Council was held in Rajagaha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on,Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha.[62]
TheMallakas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist andJain works. They were a powerful people dwelling in Northern India. According to Mahabharata, Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have conquered the chief of the Mallakas in the course of his expedition in Eastern India. During the Buddhist period, the Mallakas Kshatriya were a republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories[63] corresponding to the nine confederated clans. These republican states were known asgaṇasaṅghas. Two of these confederations – one withKushinagar (modern Kasia nearGorakhpur) as its capital and the second with Pava (modernFazilnagar, 20 kilometres (12 mi) southeast of Kushinagar) as thecapital – had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kuśināra is very important in the history ofBuddhism sinceLord Buddha took last meal at Pava. Buddha was taken ill at Pava and died at Kusinara. It is widely believed that Lord Gautam died at the courtyard of King Sastipal Mall of Kushinagar. Kushinagar is now the centre of the Buddhist pilgrimage circle which is being developed by the tourism development corporation of Uttar Pradesh.
The Mallakas, like theLicchavis, are mentioned byManusmriti as VratyaKshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta. The Mallakas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to one ofSamgha (republican union), the members of which called themselvesrajas. The Mallakas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Licchhavis for self-defense but lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.[citation needed]
The country of theMatsya or Macchā tribe lay to the south of the Kurus and west of theYamuna, which separated them from the Panchalas. It roughly corresponded to the formerprincely state ofJaipur inRajputana, and included the whole ofAlwar with portions ofBharatpur. The capital of Matsya was atViratanagara (modernBairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata. InPali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract on the north bank of theChambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in theVisakhapatnam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the time of Buddha.[citation needed]
The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganges. It roughly corresponded to modernBudaun,Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts ofUttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modernRamnagar in theBareilly district), while southern Panchala had its capital atKampilya orKampil in the Farrukhabad District. The famous city of Kanyakubja orKanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a monarchicalclan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. In the 4th century BCE,Kautiliya'sArthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following theRajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution.[citation needed]
The country of the Surasenas lay to the east of Matsya and west ofYamuna. This corresponds roughly to theBrij region of Uttar Pradesh,Haryana andRajasthan. andGwalior district ofMadhya Pradesh. It had its capital at Madhura orMathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena, was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha, through whose helpBuddhism gained ground in Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in theAshtadhyayi of Pāṇini. InKautiliya'sArthashastra, the Vrishnis are described assangha or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of theShoorsaini formed asangha andVasudeva (Krishna) is described as thesangha-mukhya. Mathura, the capital of Surasena, was also known at the time ofMegasthenes as the centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by the Magadhan empire.[citation needed]
Vajji orVṛji was a confederacy of neighbouring clans including theLicchavis and one of the principal mahājanapadas ofAncient India. The area they ruled constitutes the region ofMithila inNepal and northernBihar and their capital was the city ofVaishali.[65]
Both the Buddhist textAnguttara Nikaya and the Jaina textBhagavati Sutra (Saya xvUddesa I) included Vajji in their lists ofsolasa (sixteen) mahājanapadas.[66] The name of this mahājanapada was derived from one of its ruling clans, the Vṛjis. The Vajji state is indicated to have been a republic. This clan is mentioned byPāṇini,Chanakya andXuanzang.[67]
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TheVatsas or Vamsas are called to be a branch of theKurus. The Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with the territory of modernPrayagraj inUttar Pradesh. It had a monarchical form of government with its capital atKausambi (identified with the village Kosam, 38 miles fromPrayagraj).[68] Kausambi was a very prosperous city where a large number of wealthy merchants resided. It was the most importantentrepôt of goods and passengers from the north-west and south. Udayana was the ruler ofVatsa in the 6th–5th century BCE. He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed toBuddhism, but later became a follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion. Udayana's mother,Queen Mrigavati, is notable for being one of the earliest known female rulers in Indian history.
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