| Magnentius | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Medallion (worth 3solidi) of Magnentius | |||||
| Roman emperor in theWest (unrecognized in theEast) | |||||
| Reign | 18 January 350 – 10 August 353 | ||||
| Predecessor | Constans | ||||
| Successor | Constantius II | ||||
| Rivals | Vetranio (350) Nepotianus (350) | ||||
| Born | c. 303 Samarobriva,Gaul | ||||
| Died | 10 August 353 (agedc. 50) Lugdunum (Lyon),Gaul | ||||
| Spouse | Justina | ||||
| Issue | Unnamed daughter[note 1] | ||||
| |||||
| Religion | Disputed; Seebelow | ||||
Magnus Magnentius (c. 303 – 10 August 353) was a Roman general andusurper againstConstantius II. Of Germanic descent, Magnentius served with distinction inGaul, where the army chose him as a replacement for the unpopular emperorConstans. AcclaimedAugustus on 18 January 350, Magnentius quickly killed Constans and gained control over most of theWestern Empire. The Eastern emperor Constantius II, brother of Constans, refused to acknowledge Magnentius's legitimacy, leading to three years ofcivil war. Decisively defeated at theBattle of Mons Seleucus, Magnentius killed himself on 10 August 353.[8]
Much of Magnentius's short reign was concerned with asserting his legitimacy. Unlike Constans, Magnentius was unrelated toConstantine the Great, and so had nodynastic claim to the emperorship. Magnentius instead sought popular support by modeling himself as a liberator who had freed the Western Empire from the tyranny of Constans. He attempted various public and religious reforms, but almost all his acts were quickly repealed by Constantius after his death.[8] In light of the political instability of his reign, modern and ancient historians tend to consider him a usurper rather than an emperor.
Perhaps the most important consequence of Magnentius's revolt was the severe depletion of the Empire's military forces in civil war: TheBattle of Mursa left so many Roman soldiers dead that, according toZosimus, Constantius feared that Rome would no longer be able to effectively hold off barbarian invasions.[9][10] Following his death, Constantius II became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.
Born in Samarobriva (Amiens),Gaul, Magnentius was purportedly the son of a British father and a Frankish mother,[11][12][13] though some scholars suspect that his supposed origins were exaggerated or invented as a result of Constantinian propaganda.[14][15][note 3] He served in theprotectores, a prestigious bodyguard corps attached to the imperial retinue, and was promoted tocomes of theHerculians and Jovians, the Imperial guard units.[17][3] Magnentius seems to have been effective in his post and to have been well-liked by other important court officials, notablyMarcellinus, thecomes rerum privatarum, who supported his usurpation.[17]
Court officials eventually hatched a plot to overthrow Constans and place Magnentius in power. By 350, Constans was likely deeply unpopular; ancient sources deride him as licentious, incompetent, and homosexual.[18][11][17] There is confusion as to the details, but in Augustodunum (Autun) on 18 January 350 Magnentius announced his bid for power by attending a dinner party, stepping out for a moment, and re-entering the room in a purple toga (the traditional dress of an emperor). The party-goers, either all[19] or in part[20] in on the plot, hailed him Augustus.[21][22]
In the days following his acclamation, Magnentius bribed the city guard to secure their loyalty and barred residents of Augustodunum from leaving the city to prevent the spread of the news. Anxious to eliminate Constans—who was then hunting near thePyrenees away from his forces—Magnentius sent a contingent to run him down, and Constans was killed at Helena (nearPerpignan).[16][11][21]Zosimus claims this force was headed byGaiso, and that hisconsulship in 351 was a reward for this act.[21][23]
Magnentius quickly attracted the loyalty of the provinces ofBritannia,Gaul, andHispania, and immediately moved to controlItaly. He did so within a month of his ascension, appointingFabius Titianus to the position ofpraefectus urbis to govern Rome.[11] He seems to have secured Africa quickly as well, thus inheriting all of Constans' former territory exceptIllyria (which would shortly come under the control ofVetranio).
Magnentius' early reign is marked by a series of bids for political legitimacy. Lacking a connection to the Constantinian dynasty, Magnentius marriedJustina, possibly a great-granddaughter of Constantine (and future wife ofValentinian).[24] Magnentius attempted to create an image of himself as a liberator, and minted coins with such inscriptions as 'liberator of the Roman world.'[24][25] Further, Magnentius seems to have initially pursued a policy of diplomacy with Constantius, hoping to induce the emperor to recognize him officially: for the first six months of his reign, Magnentius spoke of Constantius as his senior and minted coins bearing his image.[11] Magnentius also appealed to the controversial bishopAthanasius—who in the end chose to side with Constantius—and repealed some of Constans' restrictions on pagan sacrifice in Italy. This latter decision, aimed at winning the support of wealthy Italian pagans, proved to be a rather crude political maneuver, and earned Magnentius a reputation as a pagan himself.[24][26]
Despite his efforts Magnentius remained politically vulnerable. Constantius reasoned that legitimizing the man who murdered his brother would set an unacceptable precedent, and so prepared to march West. In Italy, Magnentius' hold over Rome proved tenuous, andJulius Nepotianus,Constantine's nephew, took and held the city for 27 days. Magnentius dispatchedMarcellinus (now promoted tomagister officiorum) to retake the city.[27] InIllyria,Vetranio was acclaimed emperor with the support of Constantius' sisterConstantina on 1 March 350.[28][11] Though he publicly allied with Magnentius, many modern scholars contend that Vetranio was working for Constantius from the beginning, preventing Magnentius from threatening Constantinople until Constantius could march West.[11]
There is little evidence to suggest that Magnentius' rule was tyrannical or unjust. In a funeral oration for the emperorJulian, the oratorLibanius concedes that Magnentius "governed [the empire] in accordance with the laws." This, along with the speed with which he attracted the provinces of Britain and Hispania, may indicate that his administration was relatively competent.[29]
By the summer of 350 it had become clear that war was inevitable between Constantius and Magnentius.[11] Magnentius had already moved east over the spring, and appointed his brotherDecentius ascaesar to control Gaul during his absence.[30] In the East, Constantius was tied down for most of 350 in hiswar against the Persians. However, in the autumn of 350 Constantius successfully lifted the Persian siege ofNisibis and forged a nominal peace with theSasanids.[31][32] AppointingConstantius Galluscaesar and entrusting command of the Eastern legions toLucillianus, Constantius moved West. On 25 December 350 he acceptedVetranio’s resignation in Illyria.[33][34]
Constantius and Magnentius wintered far apart, and, in the early months of 351, both parties flirted with the idea of peace.[32] Constantius offered Magnentius control of Gaul, which Magnentius rejected.[30][35] Magnentius' force may have been slowly deserting him,[35] for he seems to have pushed for a battle:[36] either the night before the battle or long before (accounts conflict) the important commanderSilvanus defected to Constantius.[30] After failing to take the city of Mursa, Magnentius' force was approached by Constantius', and theBattle of Mursa Major ensued. Constantius won aPyrrhic victory in one of the largest battles ever fought among Romans: low estimates suggest there were over 50,000 deaths. The sight of the field is reported to have reduced Constantius to tears, and to have made him fear that Rome would be unable to resist barbarian invasion.[35] Contemporary commentators likeEutropius lament the waste of Roman soldiers, noting that enough men for an entire foreign invasion were lost.[37]
Magnentius retreated across theAlps, perhaps after being prevented from entering Italy by the erection of garrisons loyal to Constantius.[34] Magnentius blocked the passages West, and Constantius engaged in skirmishes with the barbarians to the Northeast for the rest of the year.[39]
The year 352 is marked by Magnentius' failed attempts to broker a peace with Constantius: Magnentius sent an embassy to Constantius who, worried about espionage, prevented them reaching him. Magnentius then sent an assembly of bishops with the message that he was willing to step down and take a soldier's posting under Constantius. Constantius rejected this offer as well.[10] Magnentius' legions along the Rhine began defecting en masse, access to northern Gaul and Spain was blocked, and, in the end, he was unable to effectively prevent defection even in his camp.[26]
At some time in the year 353, Magnentius may have attempted to assassinateConstantius Gallus, Constantius'caesar, in a bid to open the Eastern empire to attack. The incident is mentioned only in the account of Zonaras, though some scholars see a passage in Ammianus Marcellinus as corroborating it. However, some modern scholars have claimed that Zonaras' account contains chronological problems, and thus the historicity of this event is uncertain.[40] In any case, if the plot did exist, it was foiled, as Gallus outlived the civil war.
Constantius crossed the Alps in 353,[8] and Magnentius made a final stand in July of the same year at theBattle of Mons Seleucus, after which he fled toLugdunum (Lyon). There, some sources report that his home was surrounded by the forces of Constantius and that he lashed out against his brother Desiderius.[note 4] However, most sources agree that on 10 August 353 he diedby suicide, falling on his sword.[8][43][44] His brotherDecentius hanged himself when he received the news.[8][43]
Following the suppression of Magnentius' rebellion, Constantius began to root out his followers. The most notorious agent he employed in this search was theprimicerius notariorumPaulus Catena ("Paul the Chain").
Magnentius' religious beliefs remain a point of contention among scholars. Many argue that Magnentius was, at least nominally, aChristian.[24][45] However, some sources hint at a pagan restoration during his short reign. Epigraphic evidence suggests that he allowed pagans to perform sacrifices at night, a practice that had been banned by Constans.[24]Philostorgius describes Magnentius as a demon worshiper, andZonaras recounts a story of him using black magic.[44]Numismatically, Magnentius' coinage is neither distinctively pagan nor Christian, with the exception of a series of coins bearing aChristogram.[46] This symbol has come to be associated solely with Christianity, but this may not reflect attitudes at the time: MacMullen argues that Magnentius was a Pagan, and that the Chi-Rho had been so de-Christianized by the mid fourth century that he could use it freely.[47]
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Media related toMagnentius at Wikimedia Commons
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by | Roman emperor 350–353 With:Constantius II Vetranio | Succeeded by |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by Sergius Nigrinianus | Roman consul 351 withGaiso | Succeeded by Decentius Caesar Paulus |
