Compared to conventional railways, maglev trains have higher top speeds, superior acceleration and deceleration, lower maintenance costs, improvedgradient handling, and lower noise. However, they are more expensive to build, cannot use existing infrastructure, and use more energy at high speeds.[4]
Maglev trains have setseveral speed records. The train speed record of 603 km/h (375 mph) was set by the experimental JapaneseL0 Series maglev in 2015.[5] From 2002 until 2021, the record for the highest operational speed of a passenger train of 431 kilometres per hour (268 mph) was held by theShanghai maglev train, which uses GermanTransrapid technology.[6] The service connectsShanghai Pudong International Airport and the outskirts of centralPudong,Shanghai. At its historical top speed, it covered the distance of 30.5 kilometres (19 mi) in just over 8minutes (average speed: 228.75 km/h).
Different maglev systems achieve levitation in different ways, which broadly fall into two categories:electromagnetic suspension (EMS) andelectrodynamic suspension (EDS). Propulsion is typically provided by alinear motor.[7] The power needed for levitation is typically not a large percentage of the overall energy consumption of a high-speed maglev system.[8] Instead, overcomingdrag takes the most energy.Vactrain technology has been proposed as a means to overcome this limitation.
Despite over a century of research and development, there are only seven operational maglev trains today — four in China, two in South Korea, and one in Japan.[9][10]
In the late 1940s, the British electrical engineerEric Laithwaite, a professor at Manchester University, developed the first full-size working model of thelinear induction motor. He became professor of heavy electrical engineering atImperial College London in 1964, where he continued his successful development of the linear motor.[13] Since linear motors do not require physical contact between the vehicle and guideway, they became a common fixture on advanced transportation systems in the 1960s and 1970s. Laithwaite joined one such project, theTracked Hovercraft RTV-31, based near Cambridge, UK, although the project was cancelled in 1973.[14]
The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglev systems as well. In the early 1970s, Laithwaite discovered a new arrangement of magnets, themagnetic river, that allowed a single linear motor to produce both lift and forward thrust, allowing a maglev system to be built with a single set of magnets. Working at theBritish Rail Research Division inDerby, along with teams at several civil engineering firms, the "transverse-flux" system was developed into a working system.[citation needed]
The first commercial maglevpeople mover was simply called "MAGLEV" and officially opened in 1984 nearBirmingham, England. It operated on an elevated 600 metres (2,000 ft) section of monorail track betweenBirmingham Airport andBirmingham International railway station, running at speeds up to 42 kilometres per hour (26 mph). The system was closed in 1995 due to reliability problems.[15]
High-speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world.[16] The first relevant patent,U.S. patent 714,851 (2 December 1902), issued to Albert C. Albertson, used magnetic levitation to take part of the weight off of the wheels while using conventional propulsion.
Early United States patents for alinear motor propelled train were awarded to German inventorAlfred Zehden [de]. The inventor was awardedU.S. patent 782,312 (14 February 1905) andU.S. patent RE12700 (21 August 1907).[note 1] In 1907, another early electromagnetic transportation system was developed by F. S. Smith.[17] In 1908,Cleveland mayorTom L. Johnson filed a patent for a wheel-less "high-speed railway" levitated by an induced magnetic field.[18] Jokingly known as "Greased Lightning," the suspended car operated on a 90-foot test track in Johnson's basement "absolutely noiseless[ly] and without the least vibration."[19] A series of German patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled by linear motors were awarded toHermann Kemper between 1937 and 1941.[note 2] An early maglev train was described inU.S. patent 3,158,765, "Magnetic system of transportation", by G. R. Polgreen on 25 August 1959. The first use of "maglev" in a United States patent was in "Magnetic levitation guidance system"[20] byCanadian Patents and Development Limited.
In 1912 French-American inventorÉmile Bachelet demonstrated a model train with electromagnetic levitation and propulsion in Mount Vernon, New York.[21] Bachelet's first related patent,U.S. patent 1,020,942 was granted in 1912. The electromagnetic propulsion was by attraction of iron in the train by direct current solenoids spaced along the track. The electromagnetic levitation was due to repulsion of the aluminum base plate of the train by the pulsating current electromagnets under the track. The pulses were generated by Bachelet's own Synchronizing-interrupterU.S. patent 986,039 supplied with 220 VAC. As the train moved it switched power to the section of track that it was on. Bachelet went on to demonstrate his model in London, England in 1914, which resulted in the registration of Bachelet Levitated Railway Syndicate Limited July 9 in London, just weeks before the start of WWI.[22]
Bachelet's second related patent,U.S. patent 1,020,943 granted the same day as the first, had the levitation electromagnets in the train and the track was aluminum plate. In the patent he stated that this was a much cheaper construction, but he did not demonstrate it.
In 1959, while delayed in traffic on theThrogs Neck Bridge,James Powell, a researcher atBrookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), thought of using magnetically levitated transportation.[23] Powell and BNL colleagueGordon Danby worked out a maglev concept using static magnets mounted on a moving vehicle to induce electrodynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially shaped loops, such asfigure-of-8 coils on a guideway.[24] These were patented in 1968–1969.[25]
The development of the latter started in 1969. The first successful SCMaglev run was made on a short track at theJapanese National Railways' (JNR's) Railway Technical Research Institute in 1972.[26] Maglev trains on theMiyazaki test track (a later, 7 km long test track) regularly hit 517 kilometres per hour (321 mph) by 1979. After an accident destroyed the train, a new design was selected. InOkazaki, Japan (1987), the SCMaglev was used for test rides at the Okazaki exhibition. Tests in Miyazaki continued throughout the 1980s, before transferring to a far longer test track, 20 kilometres (12 mi) long, in Yamanashi in 1997. The track has since been extended to almost 43 kilometres (27 mi). The 603 kilometres per hour (375 mph) world speed record for crewed trains was set there in 2015.[citation needed]
Development ofHSST started in 1974. InTsukuba, Japan (1985), the HSST-03 (Linimo) became popular at theTsukuba World Exposition, in spite of its low 30 kilometres per hour (19 mph) top speed. InSaitama, Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was revealed at the Saitama exhibition inKumagaya. Its fastest recorded speed was 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph).[27]
Construction of a new high-speed maglev line, theChuo Shinkansen, started in 2014. It is being built by extending the SCMaglev test track in Yamanashi in both directions. The completion date expected to be 2034 and an extension toOsaka expected to be completed in 2037[28], with the estimate of 2027 no longer possible following a local governmental rejection of a construction permit.[29]
Transrapid 05 was the first maglev train with longstator propulsion licensed for passenger transportation. In 1979, a 908 metres (2,979 ft) track was opened inHamburg for the firstInternational Transportation Exhibition [de] (IVA 79). Interest was sufficient that operations were extended three months after the exhibition finished, having carried more than 50,000 passengers. The Transrapid 05 was reassembled inKassel in 1980.
In 1979 theUSSR town ofRamenskoye (Moscow oblast) built an experimental test site for running experiments with cars on magnetic suspension. The test site consisted of a 60-metre ramp which was later extended to 980 metres.[30] From the late 1970s to the 1980s five prototypes of cars were built that received designations from TP-01 (ТП-01) to TP-05 (ТП-05).[31] The early cars were supposed to reach the speed up to 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph).
The construction of a maglev track using the technology from Ramenskoye started inArmenian SSR in 1987[32] and was planned to be completed in 1991. The track was supposed to connect the cities ofYerevan andSevan via the city ofAbovyan.[33] The original design speed was 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph) which was later lowered to 180 kilometres per hour (110 mph).[34] However, theSpitak earthquake in 1988 and theFirst Nagorno-Karabakh War caused the project to freeze. In the end the overpass was only partially constructed.[35]
In the early 1990s, the maglev theme was continued by the Engineering Research Center "TEMP" (ИНЦ "ТЭМП")[36] this time by the order from theMoscow government. The project was named V250 (В250). The idea was to build a high-speed maglev train to connectMoscow to theSheremetyevo airport. The train would consist of 64-seater cars and run at speeds up to 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph).[31] In 1993, due to thefinancial crisis, the project was abandoned. However, from 1999 the "TEMP" research center had been participating as a co-developer in the creation of the linear motors for theMoscow Monorail system.
The world's first commercial maglev system was a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran between the airport terminal ofBirmingham Airport and the nearbyBirmingham International railway station between 1984 and 1995.[37] Its track length was 600 metres (2,000 ft), and trains levitated at an altitude of 15 millimetres [0.59 in], levitated by electromagnets, and propelled with linear induction motors.[38] It operated for 11 years and was initially very popular with passengers,[39] but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems made it progressively unreliable[40] as years passed, leading to its closure in 1995. One of the original cars is now on display atRailworld in Peterborough, together with theRTV31 hover train vehicle. Another is on display at the National Railway Museum in York.[citation needed]
Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:[citation needed]
The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8-tonne vehicle was easy.
Electrical power was available.
The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms.
Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were involved.
Land was owned by the railway or airport.
Local industries and councils were supportive.
Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per organization was low.
After the system closed in 1995, the original guideway lay dormant[41] until 2003, when a replacementcable-hauled system, theAirRail Link Cable Liner people mover, was opened.[42][43]
Transrapid, a German maglev company, had a test track inEmsland with a total length of 31.5 kilometres (19.6 mi). The single-track line ran betweenDörpen andLathen with turning loops at each end. The trains regularly ran at up to 420 kilometres per hour (260 mph). Paying passengers were carried as part of the testing process. The construction of the test facility began in 1980 and finished in 1984.
In 2006, amaglev train accident occurred in Lathen, killing 23 people. It was found to have been caused by human error in implementing safety checks. From 2006 no passengers were carried. At the end of 2011 the operation licence expired and was not renewed, and in early 2012 demolition permission was given for its facilities, including the track and factory.[44]
In March 2021 it was reported theCRRC was investigating reviving the Emsland test track.[45] In May 2019 CRRC had unveiled its "CRRC 600" prototype which is designed to reach 600 kilometres per hour (370 mph).
Vancouver, Canada, and Hamburg, Germany, 1986–1988
In Vancouver, Canada, the HSST-03 by HSST Development Corporation (Japan Airlines andSumitomo Corporation) was exhibited atExpo 86,[46] and ran on a 400-metre (0.25 mi) test track that provided guests with a ride in a single car along a short section of track at the fairgrounds.[47] It was removed after the fair. It was shown at the Aoi Expo in 1987 and is now on static display at Okazaki Minami Park.
In 1993, South Korea completed the development of its own maglev train, shown off at theDaejeon Expo '93, which was developed further into a full-fledged maglevUTM-02 capable of travelling up to 110 kilometres per hour (68 mph) in 2006. This final model was incorporated in theIncheon Airport Maglev which opened on 3 February 2016, making South Korea the world's fourth country to operate its own self-developed maglev after the United Kingdom's Birmingham International Airport,[49] Germany's BerlinM-Bahn,[50] andJapan'sLinimo.[51] It linksIncheon International Airport to the Yongyu Station and Leisure Complex onYeongjong island.[52] It offers a transfer to theSeoul Metropolitan Subway atAREX'sIncheon International Airport Station and is offered free of charge to anyone to ride, operating between 9am and 6pm with 15-minute intervals.[53]
The maglev system was co-developed by the South Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM) andHyundai Rotem.[54][55][56] It is 6.1 kilometres (3.8 mi) long, with six stations and a 110 kilometres per hour (68 mph) operating speed.[57]
Two more stages are planned of 9.7 kilometres (6 mi) and 37.4 kilometres (23.2 mi). Once completed it will become a circular line. It was shut down in September 2023.
Transport System Bögl (TSB) is a driverless maglev system developed by the German construction companyMax Bögl since 2010. Its primary intended use is for short to medium distances (up to 30 km) and speeds up to 150 km/h for uses such asairport shuttles. The company has been doing test runs on an 820-meter-long test track at their headquarters inSengenthal,Upper Palatinate,Germany, since 2012 clocking over 100,000 tests covering a distance of over 65,000 km as of 2018.
In 2018 Max Bögl signed a joint venture with the Chinese company Chengdu Xinzhu Road & Bridge Machinery Co. with the Chinese partner given exclusive rights of production and marketing for the system in China. The joint venture constructed a 3.5 km (2.2 mi) demonstration line nearChengdu, China, and two vehicles were airlifted there in June, 2020.[58] In February 2021 a vehicle on the Chinese test track hit a top speed of 169 km/h (105 mph).[59]
Development of the low-to-medium speed systems, that is, 100–200 km/h (62–124 mph),[62] by theCRRC has led to opening lines such as theChangsha Maglev Express in 2016 and theLine S1 in Beijing in 2017. In April 2020 a new model capable of 160 km/h (99 mph) and compatible with the Changsha line completed testing. The vehicle, under development since 2018, has a 30 percent increase in traction efficiency and a 60 percent increase in speed over the stock in use on the line since.[63] The vehicles entered service in July 2021 with a top speed of 140 km/h (87 mph).[64]CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive said in April 2020 it is developing a model capable of 200 km/h (120 mph).[63]
In 2006 the 500 km/h (310 mph) CM1 Dolphin prototype was unveiled[66] and began testing on a new 1.5-kilometre (0.93 mi) test track atTongji University, northwest of Shanghai.
A prototype vehicle of the 600 km/h (370 mph) CRRC 600 was developed in 2019 and tested from June 2020.[67]
In March 2021 a 300 km/h (190 mph) model began trials.[68]
In July 2021, theCRRC 600 maglev, planned to travel at up to 600 km/h (370 mph), was unveiled in Qingdao.[69] It was reported to be the world's fastest ground vehicle.[70]
A high-speed test track is under development in China and also, in April 2021, there was consideration given to re-opening the Emsland test facility in Germany.[65]
A second, incompatible high-speed prototype was constructed byMax Bögl and Chengdu Xinzhu Road & Bridge Machinery Co. Ltd. and unveiled in January 2021. Developed atSouthwest Jiaotong University in Chengdu, theSuper Bullet Maglev design uses high-temperature superconducting magnets, is designed for 620 km/h (390 mph) and was demonstrated on a 165-metre (180 yd) test track.[71]
In the public imagination,maglev often evokes the concept of an elevatedmonorail track with alinear motor. Maglev systems may be monorail or dual rail—theSCMaglev MLX01 for instance uses a trench-like track—and not all monorail trains are maglevs. Some railway transport systems incorporate linear motors but use electromagnetism only forpropulsion, without levitating the vehicle. Such trains have wheels and are not maglevs.[note 3] Maglev tracks, monorail or not, can also be constructed at grade or underground in tunnels. Conversely, non-maglev tracks, monorail or not, can be elevated or underground too. Some maglev trains do incorporate wheels and function like linear motor-propelled wheeled vehicles at slower speeds but levitate at higher speeds. This is typically the case withelectrodynamic suspension maglev trains.Aerodynamic factors may also play a role in the levitation of such trains.
Electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electronically controlled electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically conductive (usually steel) track.
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses superconducting electromagnets or strong permanent magnets that create a toroidal magnetic field, which induces currents in nearby metallic conductors when there is relative movement, which pushes and pulls the train towards the designed levitation position on the guide way.
Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is used to levitate theTransrapid on the track, so that the train can be faster than wheeled mass transit systems.[73][74]
In electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates by attraction to a ferromagnetic (usually steel) rail whileelectromagnets, attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated inside the C, between the upper and lower edges.
Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the square of distance, so minor changes in distance between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are dynamically unstable—a slight divergence from the optimum position tends to grow, requiring sophisticated feedback systems to maintain a constant distance from the track, (approximately 15 millimetres [0.59 in]).[75][76]
The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they work at all speeds, unlike electrodynamic systems, which only work at a minimum speed of about 30 kilometres per hour (19 mph). This eliminates the need for a separate low-speed suspension system, and can simplify track layout. On the downside, the dynamic instability demands fine track tolerances, which can offset this advantage.Eric Laithwaite was concerned that to meet required tolerances, the gap between magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably large.[77] In practice, this problem was addressed through improved feedback systems, which support the required tolerances. Air gap and energy efficiency can be improved by using the so-called "Hybrid Electromagnetic Suspension (H-EMS)", where the main levitation force is generated by permanent magnets, while the electromagnet controls the air gap,[78] what is calledelectropermanent magnets. Ideally it would take negligible power to stabilize the suspension and in practice the power requirement is less than it would be if the entire suspension force were provided by electromagnets alone.[79]
The Japanese SCMaglev's EDS suspension is powered by the magnetic fields induced either side of the vehicle by the passage of the vehicle's superconducting magnets.EDS maglev propulsion via propulsion coils
In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the guideway and the train exert a magnetic field, and the train is levitated by the repulsive and attractive force between these magnetic fields.[80] In some configurations, the train can be levitated only by repulsive force. In the early stages of maglev development at the Miyazaki test track, a purely repulsive system was used instead of the later repulsive and attractive EDS system.[81] The magnetic field is produced either by superconducting magnets (as in JR–Maglev) or by an array of permanent magnets (as inInductrack). The repulsive and attractive force in the track is created by aninduced magnetic field in wires or other conducting strips in the track.
A major advantage of EDS maglev systems is that they are dynamically stable—changes in distance between the track and the magnets creates strong forces to return the system to its original position.[77] In addition, the attractive force varies in the opposite manner, providing the same adjustment effects. No active feedback control is needed.
However, at slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and the resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to levitate the train. For this reason, the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches take-off speed. Since a train may stop at any location, due to equipment problems for instance, the entire track must be able to support both low- and high-speed operation.
Another downside is that the EDS system naturally creates a field in the track in front and to the rear of the lift magnets, which acts against the magnets and creates magnetic drag. This is generally only a concern at low speeds, and is one of the reasons why JR abandoned a purely repulsive system and adopted the sidewall levitation system.[81] At higher speeds other modes of drag dominate.[77]
The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a varying force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the need for a separate reaction plate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development of such "traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial College laboratory.[77] Alternatively, propulsion coils on the guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and make the train move forward. The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: an alternating current through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the track. The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to match the speed of the train. The offset between the field exerted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force moving the train forward.
The termmaglev refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railway system as well, specifically designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational implementations of maglev technology make minimal use of wheeled train technology and are not compatible with conventionalrail tracks. Because they cannot share existing infrastructure, maglev systems must be designed as standalone systems. The SPM maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit maglev vehicles and conventional trains to operate on the same tracks.[77]MAN in Germany also designed a maglev system that worked with conventional rails, but it was never fully developed.[citation needed]
Magnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are less than EDS; proven, commercially available technology; high speeds (500 kilometres per hour or 310 miles per hour); no wheels or secondary propulsion system needed.
The separation between the vehicle and the guideway must be constantly monitored and corrected due to the unstable nature of electromagnetic attraction; the system's inherent instability and the required constant corrections by outside systems may induce vibration.
Onboard magnets and large margin between rail and train enable highest-recorded speeds (603 kilometres per hour or 375 miles per hour) and heavy load capacity; demonstrated successful operations usinghigh-temperature superconductors in its onboard magnets, cooled with inexpensive liquidnitrogen.[citation needed]
Strong magnetic fields on the train would make the train unsafe for passengers withpacemakers or magnetic data storage media such as hard drives and credit cards, necessitating the use ofmagnetic shielding; limitations on guideway inductivity limit maximum speed;[citation needed] vehicle must bewheeled for travel at low speeds.
Failsafesuspension—no power required to activate magnets; Magnetic field is localized below the car; can generate enough force at low speeds (around 5 kilometres per hour or 3.1 miles per hour) for levitation; given power failure cars stop safely;Halbach arrays of permanent magnets may prove more cost-effective than electromagnets.
Requires either wheels or track segments that move for when the vehicle is stopped. Under development as of 2008[update]; no commercial version or full-scale prototype.
NeitherInductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, althoughInductrack provides levitation at much lower speed; wheels are required for these systems. EMS systems are wheel-free.
The German Transrapid, JapaneseHSST (Linimo), and KoreanRotem EMS maglevs levitate at a standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to 10 kilometres per hour (6.2 mph) speed,[citation needed] using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.
EMS systems such as HSST/Linimo can provide both levitation andpropulsion using an onboard linear motor. But EDS systems and some EMS systems such as Transrapid levitate but do not propel. Such systems need some other technology for propulsion. A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted in the track is one solution. Over long distances coil costs could be prohibitive.
Earnshaw's theorem shows that no combination of static magnets can be in a stable equilibrium.[89] Therefore a dynamic (time varying) magnetic field is required to achieve stabilization. EMS systems rely on active electronicstabilization that constantly measures the bearing distance and adjusts the electromagnet current accordingly. EDS systems rely on changing magnetic fields to create currents, which can give passive stability.
Because maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll, and yaw is required. In addition to rotation, surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sideways motion), or heave (up and down motions) can be problematic.
Superconducting magnets on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet lock the train into its lateral position. It can move linearly along the track, but not off the track. This is due to theMeissner effect andflux pinning.
Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimes called Null Flux systems).[80][90] These use a coil that is wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields, so that the average flux in the loop is zero. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, but any moves off-line create flux that generates a field that naturally pushes/pulls it back into line.
Some systems (notably theSwissmetro system and theHyperloop) propose the use of vactrains—maglev trains running in a tunnel with a partial or totalvacuum, which reduces or eliminatesair drag. This has the potential to increase speed and efficiency greatly, as most of the energy for conventional maglev trains is lost to aerodynamic drag.[91]
One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be exposed to the risk of cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can repressurize the tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident. Since trains are likely to operate at or near the Earth's surface, emergency restoration of ambient pressure should be straightforward. TheRAND Corporation has depicted a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross the Atlantic or the USA in around 21 minutes.[92]
The Polish startupNevomo (previouslyHyper Poland) is developing a system for modifying existing railway tracks into a maglev system, on which conventional wheel-rail trains, as well maglev vehicles can travel.[93] Vehicles on this so-called 'magrail' system will be able to reach speeds of up to 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph) at significantly lower infrastructure costs than stand-alone maglev lines. In 2023 Nevomo conducted the first MagRail tests on Europe's longest test track for passive magnetic levitation, which the company had previously built in Poland.[94]
(HES orH-EMS) is a type of magnetic suspension system used in some high-speed ground transport andmaglev applications. It combines elements of bothelectromagnetic suspension (EMS) andelectrodynamic suspension (EDS) to provide stable levitation, reduced energy consumption, and operation over a broader range of speeds.
Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train. Energy may be regained when the train slows down viaregenerative braking. It also levitates and stabilises the train's movement. Most of the energy is needed to overcomeair drag. Some energy is used for air conditioning, heating, lighting and other miscellany.
At low speeds the percentage of power used for levitation can be significant, consuming up to 15% more power than a subway or light rail service.[95] For short distances the energy used for acceleration might be considerable.
The force used to overcome air drag increases with the square of the velocity and hence dominates at high speed. The energy needed per unit distance increases by the square of the velocity and the time decreases linearly. However power increases by the cube of the velocity. For example, 2.37 times as much power is needed to travel at 400 kilometres per hour (250 mph) than 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph), while drag increases by 1.77 times the original force.[96]
Maglev transport is non-contact and electric powered. It relies less or not at all on the wheels, bearings and axles common to wheeled rail systems.[97]
Speed: Maglev allows higher top speeds than conventional rail. While experimental wheel-basedhigh-speed trains have demonstrated similar speeds, conventional trains will suffer from friction between wheels and track and thus elevating the maintenance cost if operating at such speed, unlike levitated maglev trains.
Maintenance: Maglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for minimal guideway maintenance. Vehicle maintenance is also minimal (based on hours of operation, rather than on speed or distance traveled). Traditional rail is subject to mechanical wear and tear that increases rapidly with speed, also increasing maintenance.[97] For example: the wearing down of brakes and overhead wire wear have caused problems for theFastech 360 rail Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues.
Weather: In theory, maglev trains should be unaffected by snow, ice, severe cold, rain, or high winds. However, as of yet no maglev system has been installed in a location with such a harsh climate.
Acceleration: Maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical systems regardless of the slickness of the guideway or the slope of the grade, because they are non-contact systems.[97]
Track: Maglev trains are not compatible with conventional track, and therefore require custom infrastructure for their entire route. By contrast conventional high-speed trains such as theTGV are able to run, albeit at reduced speeds, on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure where new infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final approaches to city terminals), or on extensions where traffic does not justify new infrastructure. John Harding, former chief maglev scientist at theFederal Railroad Administration, claimed that separate maglev infrastructure more than pays for itself with higher levels of all-weather operational availability and nominal maintenance costs. These claims have yet to be proven in an intense operational setting and they do not consider the increased maglev construction costs. However, in countries like China, there are discussion of building some key conventional high-speed rail tunnels/bridges to a standard that would allow them upgrading to maglev.
Mass: The electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs require between 1 and 2 kilowatts per ton.[99] The use of superconductor magnets can reduce the electromagnets' energy consumption. A 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70 tons, which consumes 70–140 kilowatts (94–188 hp).[citation needed] Most energy use for the TRI is for propulsion and overcoming air resistance at speeds over 100 miles per hour (160 km/h).[citation needed]
Weight loading: High-speed rail requires more support and construction for its concentrated wheel loading. Maglev cars are lighter and distribute weight more evenly.[100]
Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air rather than from wheels touching rails, maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds. However, thepsychoacoustic profile of the maglev may reduce this benefit: a study concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic, while conventional trains experience a 5–10 dB "bonus", as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level.[101][102][103]
Magnet reliability: Superconducting magnets are generally used to generate the powerful magnetic fields to levitate and propel the trains. These magnets must be kept below their critical temperatures (this ranges from 4.2 K to 77 K, depending on the material). New alloys and manufacturing techniques in superconductors and cooling systems have helped address this issue.
Control systems: No signalling systems are needed for high-speed maglev, because such systems are computer controlled.[citation needed] Human operators cannot react fast enough to manage high-speed trains. High-speed systems require dedicated rights of way and are usually elevated. Two maglev system microwave towers are in constant contact with trains. There is no need for train whistles or horns, either.
Terrain: Maglevs are able to ascend higher grades, offering more routing flexibility and reduced tunneling.[104]
Efficiency: For maglev systems thelift-to-drag ratio can exceed that of aircraft (for exampleInductrack can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher than any aircraft). This can make maglevs more efficient per kilometer. However, at high cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag is much larger than lift-induced drag. Jet-powered aircraft take advantage of low air density at high altitudes to significantly reduce air drag. Hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel more efficiently at high speeds than maglev trains that operate at sea level.[citation needed]
Routing: Maglevs offer competitive journey times for distances of 800 kilometres (500 mi) or less. Additionally, maglevs can easily serve intermediate destinations. Air routes don't require infrastructure between the origin and destination airport and therefore provide greater flexibility to modify service endpoints as needed.
Availability: Maglevs are little affected by weather.[citation needed]
Travel time: Maglevs do not face the extended security protocols faced by air travelers nor is time consumed for taxiing, or for queuing for take-off and landing.[citation needed]
The Shanghai maglev demonstration line cost US$1.2 billion to build in 2004.[106] This total includes capital costs such as right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving, on-site guideway manufacturing, in-situ pier construction at 25 metres (82 ft) intervals, a maintenance facility and vehicle yard, several switches, two stations, operations and control systems, power feed system, cables and inverters, and operational training. Ridership is not a primary focus of this demonstration line, since theLongyang Road station is on the eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the line is extended to South Shanghai Train station and Hongqiao Airport station, which may not happen because of economic reasons, ridership was expected to cover operation and maintenance costs and generate significant net revenue.[according to whom?]
The South Shanghai extension was expected to cost approximately US$18 million per kilometre. In 2006, the German government invested $125 million in guideway cost reduction development that produced an all-concrete modular design that is faster to build and is 30% less costly. Other new construction techniques were also developed that put maglev at or below price parity with new high-speed rail construction.[107]
In South Korea, the operational Incheon Airport Maglev - launched in 2016 - exemplifies a lower-speed, urban application where construction costs (approximately US$65 million per kilometer) have proven more manageable, offering a model for cost-effective deployment in densely populated areas.[108][54]
Because maglev trains eliminate mechanical friction through magnetic levitation, their maintenance requirements tend to be lower than those for conventional high-speed rail. Advanced systems - such as those using superconducting magnets or adaptive control for energy management - further reduce operating costs.[109] For instance, some designs claim energy consumption reductions of up to 30% compared with earlier maglev systems, with lower long-term maintenance expenses owing to reduced wear.[110] U.S. studies on proposed corridors (e.g. the Baltimore-Washington Rapid Rail project) have estimated construction costs in the range of US$50-100 million per mile, while also highlighting potential benefits such as job creation during both the construction and operation phases.[111][112]
The primary economic rationale for maglev is the dramatic reduction in travel times, which could result in substantial productivity gains and drive regional economic integration. In Japan, the time savings offered by the Chuo Shinkansen are projected to generate benefits on the order of several trillion yen over its operational lifetime.[113] Similarly, proposals in the United States emphasize the dual benefits of rapid intercity connectivity and reduced highway congestion, despite the need to overcome political and funding challenges. German research into the Transrapid system - which, although not deployed commercially, led to innovations in modular guideway manufacturing that reduced costs by up to 30% - further supports the potential for maglev systems to achieve price parity with new high-speed rail lines under the right conditions.[114][111] In Switzerland, while full-scale commercial maglev has not yet been implemented, ongoing R&D (including Hyperloop inspired tests) indicates that similar cost-saving measures could eventually be applied in European markets.[115][116]
The JapaneseLinimo HSST, cost approximately US$100 million/km to build.[117] Besides offering improved operation and maintenance costs over other transit systems, these low-speed maglevs provide ultra-high levels of operational reliability and introduce little noise and generate zero air pollution intodense urban settings.
The highest-recorded maglev speed is 603 kilometres per hour (375 mph), achieved in Japan byJR Central'sL0 superconducting maglev on 21 April 2015,[118] 28 kilometres per hour (17 mph) faster than the conventionalTGV wheel-rail speed record. However, the operational and performance differences between these two very different technologies is far greater. The TGV record was achieved accelerating down a 72.4 kilometres (45 mi) slight decline, requiring 13 minutes. It then took another 77.25 kilometres (48 mi) for the TGV to stop, requiring a total distance of 149.65 kilometres (93 mi) for the test.[119] The L0 record, however, was achieved on the 42.8 kilometres (26.6 mi) Yamanashi test track – less than one-third the distance.[120] No maglev or wheel-rail commercial operation has actually been attempted at speeds over 500 kilometres per hour (310 mph).
TheShanghai Maglev Train, an implementation of the GermanTransrapid system, has a top speed of 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph).[6] The line is the fastest and first commercially operational high speed maglev. It connectsShanghai Pudong International Airport and the outskirts of centralPudong,Shanghai. The service covers a distance of 30.5 kilometres (19.0 mi) in just 8 minutes.[124]
In January 2001, the Chinese signed an agreement withTransrapid to build an EMS high-speed maglev line to link Pudong International Airport with Longyang Road Metro station on the southeastern edge of Shanghai. ThisShanghai Maglev Train demonstration line, or Initial Operating Segment (IOS), has been in commercial operations since April 2004[125] and now operates 115 daily trips (up from 110 in 2010) that traverse the 30 kilometres (19 mi) between the two stations in 8 minutes, achieving a top speed of 300 kilometres per hour (190 mph) and averaging 224 kilometres per hour (139 mph). Prior to May 2021 services operated at up to 431 kilometres per hour (268 mph), taking only 7 minutes to complete the trip.[126] On a 12 November 2003 system commissioning test run, it achieved 501 kilometres per hour (311 mph), its designed top cruising speed. The Shanghai maglev is faster than Birmingham technology and comes with on-time—to the second—reliability greater than 99.97%.[127]
The commercialautomated "Urban Maglev" system commenced operation in March 2005 inAichi, Japan. The Tobu Kyuryo Line, otherwise known as theLinimo line, covers 9 kilometres (5.6 mi). It has a minimum operating radius of 75 metres (246 ft) and a maximum gradient of 6%. The linear-motor magnetically levitated train has a top speed of 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph). More than 10 million passengers used this "urban maglev" line in its first three months of operation. At 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph), it is sufficiently fast for frequent stops, has little or no noise impact on surrounding communities, can navigate short radius rights of way, and operates during inclement weather. The trains were designed by the Chubu HSST Development Corporation, which also operates a test track in Nagoya.[128]
The first maglev test trials using electromagnetic suspension opened to public was HML-03, made by Hyundai Heavy Industries for theDaejeon Expo in 1993, after five years of research and manufacturing two prototypes, HML-01 and HML-02.[129][130][131] Government research on urban maglev using electromagnetic suspension began in 1994.[131] The first operating urban maglev wasUTM-02 in Daejeon beginning on 21 April 2008 after 14 years of development and one prototype;UTM-01. The train runs on a 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) track betweenExpo Park andNational Science Museum[132][133] which has been shortened with the redevelopment of Expo Park. The track currently ends at the street parallel to the science museum. Meanwhile, UTM-02 conducted the world's first-ever maglev simulation.[134][135] However, UTM-02 is still the second prototype of a final model. The final UTM model of Rotem's urban maglev, UTM-03, was used for a new line that opened in 2016 on Incheon's Yeongjong island connectingIncheon International Airport (see below).[136] The Daejeon Expo Maglev ended service in 2020 and was demolished in 2021.
TheHunan provincial government launched the construction of a maglev line betweenChangsha Huanghua International Airport andChangsha South Railway Station, covering a distance of 18.55 km. Construction started in May 2014 and was completed by the end of 2015.[137][138] Trial runs began on 26 December 2015 and trial operations started on 6 May 2016.[139] As of 13 June 2018 the Changsha maglev had covered a distance of 1.7 million km and carried nearly 6 million passengers. A second generation of these vehicles has been produced which have a top speed of 160 km/h (99 mph).[140] In July 2021 the new model entered service operating at a top speed of 140 km/h (87 mph), which reduced the travel time by 3 minutes.[141]
Qingyuan Maglev arriving at Maglev Yinzhan Station
Qingyuan Maglev Tourist Line (清远磁浮旅游专线) is a medium- to low-speed maglev line inQingyuan,Guangdong province, China. The line will operate at speeds up to 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph).[145] The first phase is 8.1 km with three stations (and one more future infill station).[145] The first phase was originally scheduled to open in October 2020[146] and will connect theYinzhan railway station on theGuangzhou–Qingyuan intercity railway with the QingyuanChimelong Theme Park.[147] In the long term the line will be 38.5 km.[148]
The Chūō Shinkansen route (bold yellow and red line) and existing Tōkaidō Shinkansen route (thin blue line)
TheChuo Shinkansen is a high-speed maglev line in Japan. Construction began in 2014, with commercial operations expected to start by 2027.[149] The 2027 target was given up in July 2020[150] and will now open no earlier than 2035.[151] The Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project aims to connect Tokyo andOsaka by way ofNagoya, the capital city ofAichi, in approximately one hour, less than half the travel time of the fastest existing bullet trains connecting the three metropolises.[152] The full track between Tokyo and Osaka was originally expected to be completed in 2045, but the operator is now aiming for 2037.[153][154][155]
TheL0 Series train type is undergoing testing by theCentral Japan Railway Company (JR Central) for eventual use on the Chūō Shinkansen line. It set a crewedworld speed record of 603 kilometres per hour (375 mph) on 21 April 2015.[118] The trains are planned to run at a maximum speed of 505 kilometres per hour (314 mph),[156] offering journey times of 40 minutes between Tokyo (Shinagawa Station) andNagoya, and 1 hour 7 minutes between Tokyo and Osaka (Shin-Ōsaka Station).[157]
A second prototype system inPowder Springs,Georgia, USA, was built by American Maglev Technology, Inc. The test track is 610 metres (2,000 ft) long with a 168.6 metres (553 ft) curve. Vehicles are operated up to 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph), below the proposed operational maximum of 97 kilometres per hour (60 mph). A June 2013 review of the technology called for an extensive testing program to be carried out to ensure the system complies with various regulatory requirements including the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) People Mover Standard. The review noted that the test track is too short to assess the vehicles' dynamics at the maximum proposed speeds.[158]
In the US, theFederal Transit Administration (FTA) Urban Maglev Technology Demonstration program funded the design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstration projects. It assessed HSST for theMaryland Department of Transportation and maglev technology for the Colorado Department of Transportation. The FTA also funded work byGeneral Atomics atCalifornia University of Pennsylvania to evaluate the MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconducting EDS system. Other US urban maglev demonstration projects of note are the LEVX in Washington State and the Massachusetts-based Magplane.
General Atomics has a 120-metre (390 ft) test facility in San Diego, that is used to test Union Pacific's 8 kilometres (5 mi) freight shuttle in Los Angeles. The technology is "passive" (or "permanent"), using permanent magnets in aHalbach array for lift and requiring no electromagnets for either levitation or propulsion. General Atomics received US$90 million in research funding from the federal government. They are also considering their technology for high-speed passenger services.[159]
Japan has a demonstration line inYamanashi prefecture where test train SCMaglevL0 Series Shinkansen reached 603 kilometres per hour (375 mph), faster than any wheeled trains.[118] The demonstration line will become part of theChūō Shinkansen linking Tokyo and Nagoya which, is currently under construction.
On 15 November 2014, The Central Japan Railway Company ran eight days of testing for the experimental maglev Shinkansen train on its test track in Yamanashi Prefecture. One hundred passengers covered a 42.8-kilometre (26.6 mi) route between the cities of Uenohara and Fuefuki, reaching speeds of up to 500 kilometres per hour (310 mph).[163]
Transport System Bögl, a division of German construction company Max Bögl, has built a test track inSengenthal, Bavaria, Germany. In appearance, it's more like the GermanM-Bahn than theTransrapid system.[164]The vehicle tested on the track is patented in the US by Max Bögl.[165] The company is also in ajoint venture with a Chinese firm. A 3.5 km (2.2 mi) demonstration line has been built nearChengdu, China and two vehicles were airlifted there in June, 2000.[58] In April 2021 a vehicle on the Chinese test track hit a top speed of 169 km/h (105 mph).[166]
On 31 December 2000, the first crewed high-temperature superconducting maglev was tested successfully atSouthwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China. This system is based on the principle that bulk high-temperature superconductors can be levitated stably above or below a permanent magnet. The load was over 530 kilograms (1,170 lb) and the levitation gap over 20 millimetres (0.79 in). The system usesliquid nitrogen to cool thesuperconductor.[167][168][169]
A 1.5 km (0.93 mi) maglevtest track [de] has been operating since 2006 at the Jiading Campus ofTongji University, northwest of Shanghai. The track uses the same design as the operating Shanghai Maglev. Top speed is restricted to 120 km/h (75 mph) due to the length of track and its topology.
In the first quarter of 2022, Polish technology startupNevomo completed the construction of Europe's longest test track for passive magnetic levitation. The 700 meter-long railway track inSubcarpathian Voivodeship inPoland allows vehicles utilizing the company'sMagRail system to travel at speeds of up to 160 kph.[170] The installation of all necessary wayside equipment was completed in December 2022 and tests began in spring 2023.[171]
Many maglev systems have been proposed in North America, Asia, Europe and on the Moon.[172][173] Many are in the early planning stages or were explicitly rejected.
A maglev route was proposed between Sydney andWollongong.[174] The proposal came to prominence in the mid-1990s. The Sydney–Wollongong commuter corridor is the largest in Australia, with upwards of 20,000 people commuting each day. Existing trains use theIllawarra line, between the cliff face of theIllawarra escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, with travel times about 2 hours. The proposal would cut travel times to 20 minutes.
Melbourne
The proposed Melbourne maglev connecting the city ofGeelong through Metropolitan Melbourne's outer suburban growth corridors, Tullamarine and Avalon domestic in and international terminals in under 20 min. and on toFrankston, Victoria, in under 30 min.
In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to theGovernment of Victoria to build a privately funded and operated maglev line to service theGreater Melbourne metropolitan area in response to theEddington Transport Report that did not investigate above-ground transport options.[175][176] The maglev would service a population of over 4 million[citation needed] and the proposal was costed at A$8 billion.
However, despite road congestion and Australia's highest roadspace per capita,[citation needed] the government dismissed the proposal in favour of road expansion including an A$8.5 billion road tunnel, $6 billion extension of theEastlink to theWestern Ring Road and a $700 million Frankston Bypass.
Toronto Zoo: Edmonton-basedMagnovate proposed a new ride and transportation system at theToronto Zoo reviving theToronto Zoo Domain Ride system, which was closed following two severe accidents in 1994. The Zoo's board unanimously approved the proposal on 29 November 2018.
The company plans to construct and operate the $25 million system on the former route of the Domain Ride (known locally as the Monorail, despite not being considered one) at zero cost to the Zoo and operate it for 15 years, splitting the profits with the Zoo. The ride will serve a single-directional loop around Zoo grounds, serving five stations and likely replacing the current Zoomobile tour tram service. Planned to be operational by 2022 at the earliest, this would be the first commercial maglev system in North America should it be approved.[177]
A maglev test line linkingXianning inHubei Province andChangsha inHunan Province will start construction in 2020. The test line is about 200 kilometres (120 mi) in length and might be part of Beijing – Guangzhou maglev in long-term planning.[178][179] In 2021, the Guangdong government proposed a Maglev line betweenHong Kong andGuangzhou viaShenzhen and beyond to Beijing.[180][181]
The project was controversial and repeatedly delayed. In May 2007 the project was suspended by officials, reportedly due to public concerns about radiation from the system.[183] In January and February 2008 hundreds of residents demonstrated in downtown Shanghai that the line route came too close to their homes, citing concerns aboutsickness due to exposure to the strong magnetic field, noise, pollution and devaluation of property near to the lines.[184][185] Final approval to build the line was granted on 18 August 2008. Originally scheduled to be ready byExpo 2010,[186] plans called for completion by 2014. The Shanghai municipal government considered multiple options, including building the line underground to allay public fears. This same report stated that the final decision had to be approved by the National Development and Reform Commission.[187]
In 2007 the Shanghai municipal government was considering building a factory inNanhui district to produce low-speed maglev trains for urban use.[188]
Shanghai – Beijing
A proposed line would have connected Shanghai to Beijing, over a distance of 1,300 kilometres (800 mi), at an estimated cost of £15.5 billion.[189] No projects had been revealed as of 2014.[190]
On 25 September 2007,Bavaria announced a high-speed maglev-rail service fromMunich to itsairport. The Bavarian government signed contracts withDeutsche Bahn and Transrapid withSiemens andThyssenKrupp for the €1.85 billion project.[191]
On 27 March 2008, theGerman Transport minister announced the project had been cancelled due to rising costs associated with constructing the track. A new estimate put the project between €3.2–3.4 billion.[192]
In March 2021 a government official said Hong Kong would be included in a planned maglev network across China, planned to operate at 600 km/h (370 mph) and begin opening by 2030.[193]
Mumbai – Delhi: A project was presented to then Indian railway minister (Mamata Banerjee) by an American company to connectMumbai andDelhi. Then Prime MinisterManmohan Singh said that if the line project was successful the Indian government would build lines between other cities and also between Mumbai Central and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport.[194]
Mumbai – Nagpur: The State of Maharashtra approved a feasibility study for a maglev train between Mumbai and Nagpur, some 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) apart.[195]
Chennai – Bangalore – Mysore: A detailed report was to be prepared and submitted by December 2012 for a line to connectChennai toMysore viaBangalore at a cost $26 million per kilometre, reaching speeds of 350 kilometres per hour (220 mph).[196]
In May 2009,Iran and a German company signed an agreement to use maglev to linkTehran andMashhad. The agreement was signed at the Mashhad International Fair site between Iranian Ministry of Roads and Transportation and the German company. The 900 kilometres (560 mi) line possibly could reduce travel time between Tehran and Mashhad to about 2.5 hours.[citation needed] Munich-based Schlegel Consulting Engineers said they had signed the contract with the Iranian ministry of transport and the governor of Mashad. "We have been mandated to lead a German consortium in this project," a spokesman said. "We are in a preparatory phase." The project could be worth between €10 billion and €12 billion, the Schlegel spokesman said.[197]
A first proposal was formalized in April 2008, inBrescia, by journalist Andrew Spannaus who recommended a high-speed connection betweenMalpensa Airport to the cities ofMilan,Bergamo, andBrescia.[198]
A consortium led by UEM Group Bhd and ARA Group proposed maglev technology to link Malaysian cities to Singapore. The idea was first mooted by YTL Group. Its technology partner then was said to be Siemens. High costs sank the proposal. The concept of a high-speed rail link from Kuala Lumpur to Singapore resurfaced. It was cited as a proposed "high impact" project in the Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) that was unveiled in 2010.[204] Approval has been given for theKuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail project, but not using maglev technology.[citation needed]
Philtram Consortium'sCebu Monorail project will be initially built as amonorail system. In the future, it will be upgraded to a patented maglev technology named Spin-Induced Lenz's Law Magnetic Levitation Train.[206]
SwissRapide: The SwissRapide AG together with the SwissRapide Consortium was planning and developing the first maglev monorail system for intercity traffic between the country's major cities. SwissRapide was to be financed by private investors. In the long-term, the SwissRapide Express was to connect the major cities north of the Alps betweenGeneva andSt. Gallen, includingLucerne andBasel. The first projects wereBern–Zürich,Lausanne–Geneva as well as Zürich–Winterthur. The first line (Lausanne–Geneva or Zürich–Winterthur) could go into service as early as 2020.[207][208]
Swissmetro: An earlier project, Swissmetro AG envisioned a partially evacuated underground maglev (avactrain). As with SwissRapide, Swissmetro envisioned connecting the major cities in Switzerland with one another. In 2011, Swissmetro AG was dissolved and the IPRs from the organisation were passed onto theEPFL in Lausanne.[209]
London – Glasgow: A line[210] was proposed in the United Kingdom from London toGlasgow with several route options through the Midlands, Northwest and Northeast of England. It was reported to be under favourable consideration by the government.[211] The approach was rejected in the Governmentwhite paperDelivering a Sustainable Railway published on 24 July 2007.[212] Another high-speed link was planned between Glasgow and Edinburgh but the technology remained unsettled.[213][214][215]
Union Pacific freight conveyor: Plans are under way by American railroadUnion Pacific to build a 7.9-kilometre (4.9 mi) container shuttle between the Ports ofLos Angeles andLong Beach, with UP'sintermodal container transfer facility. The system would be based on "passive" technology, especially well-suited to freight transfer as no power is needed on board. The vehicle is achassis that glides to its destination. The system is being designed byGeneral Atomics.[159]
California-Nevada Interstate Maglev: High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern California andLas Vegas are under study via theCalifornia-Nevada Interstate Maglev Project.[219] This plan was originally proposed as part of anI-5 orI-15 expansion plan, but the federal government ruled that it must be separated from interstate public work projects.
After the decision, private groups from Nevada proposed a line running from Las Vegas to Los Angeles with stops inPrimm, Nevada;Baker, California; and other points throughoutSan Bernardino County into Los Angeles. Politicians expressed concern that a high-speed rail line out of state would carry spending out of state along with travelers.
San Diego-Imperial County airport: In 2006, San Diego commissioned a study for a maglev line to a proposed airport located inImperial County.SANDAG claimed that the concept would be an "airports [sic] without terminals", allowing passengers to check in at a terminal in San Diego ("satellite terminals"), take the train to the airport and directly board the airplane. In addition, the train would have the potential to carry freight. Further studies were requested although no funding was agreed.[221]
Orlando International Airport to Orange County Convention Center: In December 2012, the Florida Department of Transportation gave conditional approval to a proposal by American Maglev to build a privately run 14.9 miles (24 km),5-station line fromOrlando International Airport toOrange County Convention Center. The Department requested a technical assessment and said there would be arequest for proposals issued to reveal any competing plans. The route requires the use of a public right of way.[222] If the first phase succeeded American Maglev would propose two further phases (of 4.9 and 19.4 miles [7.9 and 31.2 km]) to carry the line toWalt Disney World.[223]
San Juan – Caguas: A 16.7-mile (26.9 km) maglev project was proposed linkingTren Urbano's Cupey Station in San Juan with two proposed stations in the city of Caguas, south of San Juan. The maglev line would run along HighwayPR-52, connecting both cities. According to American Maglev project cost would be approximately US$380 million.[224][225][226]
Two incidents involved fires. A Japanese test train in Miyazaki, MLU002, was completely consumed by a fire in 1991.[227]
On 11 August 2006, a fire broke out on the commercial Shanghai Transrapid shortly after arriving at the Longyang terminal. People were evacuated without incident before the vehicle was moved about 1 kilometre to keep smoke from filling the station. NAMTI officials toured the SMT maintenance facility in November 2010 and learned that the cause of the fire was "thermal runaway" in a battery tray. As a result, SMT secured a new battery vendor, installed new temperature sensors and insulators and redesigned the trays.[citation needed]
On 22 September 2006, aTransrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle on a test/publicity run in Lathen (Lower Saxony / north-western Germany).[228][229] Twenty-three people were killed and ten were injured; these were the first maglev crash fatalities. The accident was caused by human error. Charges were brought against three Transrapid employees after a year-long investigation.[230]
Safety is a greater concern with high-speed public transport due to the potential for high impact force and large number of casualties. In the case of maglev trains as well as conventional high-speed rails, an incident could result from human error, including loss of power, or factors outside human control, such as ground movement caused by an earthquake.
^Zehden describes a geometry in which the linear motor is used below a steel beam, giving partial levitation of the vehicle. These patents were later cited byElectromagnetic apparatus generating a gliding magnetic field by Jean Candelas (U.S. patent 4,131,813),Air cushion supported, omnidirectionally steerable, traveling magnetic field propulsion device by Harry A. Mackie (U.S. patent 3,357,511) andTwo-sided linear induction motor especially for suspended vehicles by Schwarzer et al. (U.S. patent 3,820,472)
^These German patents would be GR643316 (1937), GR44302 (1938), GR707032 (1941).
^This is the case with theMoscow Monorail—currently the only non-maglev linear motor-propelled monorail train in active service.
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