ရခိုင်လူမျိုး (Rakhine) | |
|---|---|
 A Rakhine girl tosses water at revellers during theThingyan. | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Myanmar | 3.1 Million (2014)[1] |
 India | 50,000[citation needed][2] |
 Bangladesh | 11,195[3][4] |
| Languages | |
| Rakhine,Burmese | |
| Religion | |
.svg) Theravada Buddhism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
TheRakhine (Burmese andRakhine:ရခိုင်လူမျိုး) orArakanese are aSoutheast Asianethnic group inMyanmar (Burma) forming the majority along the coastal region of present-dayRakhine State (formerly calledArakan), although Rakhine communities also exist throughout the country, particularly in theAyeyarwady andYangon Regions. They constitute approximately 4.61% or more of Myanmar's total population.[5] Rakhine communities also exist inBangladesh'sChittagong Hill Tracts andIndia'sNortheastern states, where they are known as theMarma andMagh peoples respectively.[6]
Rakhine people consist of seven different ethnic groups, namely Rakhine,Kamein, Kwe Myi,Daingnet people,Maramagyi,Mru people andThet. Among them, Rakhine ethnic are the majority in Rakhine State and have long been influenced by their proximity toIndia and have formed trading links with thesub-continent. Thet, Kamein, Daingnet andMarma people are the minority ethnic groups living in the hills.
The Arakanese are predominantlyTheravada Buddhist. Their language has some similarities withBurmese language and also very similar to Burma in culture and traditional dress.[7] They have developed their own kingdoms, dynasties, scripts, coins, costumes, culture, and dialects, showcasing a rich and distinct heritage. They also have their own ethnic armed group in Myanmar'sRakhine State known as theArakan Army.[8]
The Rakhine people have a variety of appearances, showing a mix of traits from bothSouth Asian andEast Asian backgrounds. They have range ofskin tones, typically ranging from light to medium brown. Rakhine men mostly wear a sarong calledlungyi, while the women also wear a sarong calledthabein.The Rakhine people celebrate several key festivals including Sangrain and Buddha Purnima.[9]
"Rakhine" (less commonly speltRakhaing) is the contemporary ethnonym and name of the region in Rakhine, Burmese, and English today.[10] The word is extant to the mid-11th century, appearing on a pillar inscription atShite-thaung Temple, and also appears in European, Persian, andCeylonese accounts by the 15th century.[10]
The termRakhine may have come from thePali word "Rakkhapura" from "Rakkhita" meaning the land of the people of Rakhasa (Rakhasa > Rakkha > Rakkhaing > Rakhaing) who were given this name in honor of their preservation of their national heritage and ethics or morality. The word Rakhine means, "one who maintains his own race." In theRakhine language, the land is calledRakhinepray, the ethnic Rakhine are calledRakhinetha.[11]
U Kala'sMaha Yazawin traces the word's etymology toAlaungsithu's conquest of the region during thePagan era, but epigraphic evidence to support the underlying theory remains scant.[10]Arthur Phayre traces the etymology to the Sanskrit or Pali words for'monster' or 'demon' (rākṣasa andrakkhasa) respectively, which is more likely.[10][12] Some Rakhine inhabitants now prefer the alternative spelling of ရက္ခိုင်.[13]
Between the 17th and 18th centuries, the Rakhine began calling themselves Mranma (မြန်မာ) and its derivatives, as attested by texts like theRakhineMinrazagri Ayedaw Sadan and theDhanyawaddy Ayedawbon.[14][10] The word, which is also cognate withBamar and is the Rakhine pronunciation of "Myanmar," continues to be used by their descendants in Bangladesh, who are known as theMarma.[14] By this period, the Bamar began to call the Rakhine the Myanmagyi (မြန်မာကြီး;lit. 'great Mranma / Myanma'), as attested by contemporaneousBurmese and foreign sources.[14] The ethnonym reflected their common ancestral kinship ties with the Buddhist-professing Bamar, with whom the Rakhine identified.[14]
By 1585, European, Persian, and Bengali accounts began describing the Rakhine and Buddhist groups likeBarua people as the Magh and its derivatives (e.g., Mogh, Mugh, Mog, etc.).[10] The word's etymology is likely to derive fromMagadha, the name of an ancient Buddhist kingdom.[14] The term Magh (or Mog) has historically been used in Bengali accounts to refer to the Marma people and the Arakanese/Rakhine.[citation needed] With the rise of theShunga dynasty and the decline of Buddhism in Magadha, many local Buddhists are believed to have migrated east, settling between Chittagong and theArakan Yoma mountains.[citation needed] This eventually lead to the growth of the Arakan Kingdom, which expanded into Chittagong.
British authorities adopted the ethnonymArakanese for the Rakhines by the late 19th century. After 1991, the Burmese government changed the official English name of the ethnic group toRakhine, as part of a broader effort to indigenize the country's English ethnonyms and place names.[15]
TheRakhine State, also known asArakan, inMyanmar is the home to the Rakhine people. The history of Rakhine is divided into seven parts - the independent kingdoms ofDhanyawadi,Waithali,Lemro,Mrauk U, Burmese occupation from 1785 to 1826,British rule from 1826 to 1948 and as a part of independent Burma from 1948.[16]
Dhanyawadi is considered the first Kingdom of Arakan. The earliest recorded evidence indicates that the kingdom was established around the 4th century CE. It served as a significant cultural and political center in the region. The kingdom was known for its flourishing trade, connectingSoutheast Asia with theIndian subcontinent. According to legends, the Gautama Buddha is said to have visited the city of Dhanyawadi during his travels to spread Buddhism in 554 BC.[17][18] The remnants of Dhanyawadi's architecture and artifacts offer insights into the early history and society of Arakan.[19]
It is later estimated that the Arakanese world shifted from Dhanyawadi kingdom toWaithali kingdom (which was a part of Chandra dynasty). The Anandachandra Inscription, dated to 729 AD, reveals that the people of the Waithali Kingdom practicedMahayana Buddhism.[20]
KingMin Hti is one of the famous Arakan kings, known for being one of thelongest reigning monarchs in world history, although the exact length of his reign is unknown. During the Le-Mro period (818–1406), it is known that he ruled theLaunggyet Dynasty of Arakan fromc. 1279 to 1373/74.[21]
The Arakan kingdoms have always been predominantly Buddhist, with the majority known today as the Rakhine people. Although some of the kings had Muslim titles (nicknames) during theKingdom of Mrauk U, as it was under Bengal Sultanate influence, none of them adopted the religion; they remained as Buddhists.[22]
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TheKingdom of Mrauk U was the largest kingdom of the Arakan (Rakhine) Kingdom, encompassing theChittagong region ofBangladesh and theRakhine State ofMyanmar. Arakanese chronicle records that more than six million shrines and pagodas flourished in Mrauk-U. A British archaeologist, Emil Forchhammer noted that "in durability, architectural skill, and ornamentation the Mrauk-U temples far surpass those on the banks of Irrawaddy." Illustrative examples of Mrauk U period architecture include theShite-thaung andHtukkanthein Temples.[23]
Mrauk-U Kingdom started initially as a part of theBengal Sultanate from 1429 to 1437 and later they got independence from Bengal.Chittagong was later conquered by Mrauk-U Kingdom around 1542. The kingdom gained full control over theBay of Bengal coastline. However, in 1666, after awar with theMughal Empire, it lost control of Chittagong.[24]
The Arakanese kingMin Razagyi (ruling 1593–1612) conquered the areas and styled himself as the highest and most powerful king of Arakan, Chacomas, and Bengal in a 1607 letter toPortuguese mercenaryFilipe de Brito e Nicote.
In 1546 CE, while the Arakanese kingMin Bin was fighting a battle with the Burmese, theSak king attacked Northern Arakan Roma and occupied the Arakanese-controlled Chacomas of the NorthernArakan Mountains. After his initial military successes againstBengal andTripura (1532–34), Min Bin began to regard himself "as a world conqueror orcakravartin", and in commemoration of his victory in Bengal he built theShitthaung Temple, one of the premier Buddhist Pagodas ofMrauk-U. His expansionist drive was to run into serious obstacles however. His control of Bengal beyondChittagong was largely nominal and he, like the sultans of Bengal before him, never solved Tripuri raids into Bengal. Min Bin also led to theToungoo–Mrauk-U War (1545–1547) which resulted in Mrauk U successfully defending its territory and maintaining independence, deterring further Toungoo invasions for decades. He survived the invasions and later provided military aid toAva, hoping to stop Toungoo's advance into Upper Burma.
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After the Bamar'sKonbaung Dynasty'sannexation of Arakan in 1785, the Mrauk U Kingdom came to an end and an estimated 35,000 people from Arakan sought refuge in the Chittagong region ofBritish Raj and parts ofnortheastern India by 1799. They fled to find protection under the British Raj.[25] Many Rakhine Buddhists also escaped by sea to theBarisal region, where their descendants still live today.[26]
In 1826, following the Bamar's defeat in theFirst Anglo-Burmese War, Arakan became a partBritish Burma.Sittwe was subsequently established as the new capital of the region.
Arakan was occupied byJapanese forces in 1942 during World War II as part of theBurma campaign. Several military operations, including theArakan Campaign of 1942-1943, were conducted in the region. Arakan was granted autonomy under Japanese occupation and was provided with its own military force known as theArakan Defence Force. The Rakhine Buddhists allied with the Japanese forces against the Britishers.[27] But early 1945, the Arakanese switched allegiance to the Allies and fought against the Japanese. British forces, with Allied support, recaptured Arakan in 1945.Sayadaw U Ottama, a prominent Rakhine Buddhist monk and nationalist leader, had played a significant role in the anti-colonial movement against British rule.[28]
Wages inArakan Division were much higher than inBritish India. The area was known for producing a lot of rice, and Sittwe became one of the top ports for rice exports, with ships coming from Europe and China.[29][30]
After the British Raj's decline, Arakan was incorporated intoBurma (now Myanmar). In 1989, the Burmese military junta changed the region name of Arakan toRakhine State.[31]
Rakhine State is one of the poorest regions in Myanmar.[32] Off its coast lies some islands likeRamree,Cheduba, andMyingun.
Arakanese legends and some Rakhine people claim that they are Aryans came from Shakya in India. On the other hand, they might be mixed with Indo-Aryans and Tibeto-Burman. Kanyans of Irrawaddy Valley with later integrated into Arakanese race. Rakhine and Burmese are very closely related languages, which both descend fromOld Burmese. 3000 or 2800 years ago, TheChandra dynasty that ruledDhanyawadi andWaithali was more likely Indo-Aryan in origin. Arakanese legends claim that the Unknown ethnic are founder of Dhanyawadi. Now they are mixed with Rakhine people.[33][34]
By the 9th century Rakhine people have founded Le-Mro, Le-Mro in the Rakhine language means "four cities," which refers to the four ancient Rakhine cities. In 1103, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until 1167. In 1406–1429,Kingdom of Ava occupied the Northern Rakhine. Southern Rakhine was not occupied by the Bagan Empire and the Ava Kingdom. In 1429, founder ofKingdom of Mrauk U, the kingMin Saw Mon reclaimed the Arakanese throne with the help of the Bengal, and ruled the kingdom. But as a vassal of Bengal 1429 to 1430.[33] Rakhine oral traditions and written records also describe several alternative origin myths, including one that traces the Rakhine back to an intermarriage between a highlandMro and a lowland queen, and another that traces the ancestry of Rakhine monarchs back toMahasammata, the legendary first monarch of the world.[35]
After theKingdom of Mrauk U was annexed by theKonbaung Kingdom in 1784, Rakhine refugees began settling in Cox's Bazar andPatuakhali District. The British colonial officer of theEast India Trading Company, CaptainHiram Cox, was given the task of providing land to the refugees in 1799. An estimated 100,000 refugees were settled in Cox's Bazar, Chittagong Hill Tracts, and Patuakhali by the East India Company government.[36] They settled inPatuakhali District andBarguna District in the 19th century.[37]
It can be difficult to distinguish a Rakhine person from aBamar person, the predominant ethnic group inMyanmar, based solely on physical appearance, unless the individual is wearing traditional Rakhine clothing or speaking theRakhine language.[38]
Genetic analysis of the Rakhine population in Bangladesh based on 17Y-chromosomal STR loci revealed 157 uniquehaplotypes with a discrimination capacity of 0.723. Phylogenetic studies show that the Rakhine are genetically closer toEast Asian populations, particularly Koreans and Japanese, indicating shared ancestral links. Although some Rakhines display a notable range of physical appearances, featuring bothSouth Asian andSouth East Asians. On the other hand, theMarma population, who are known to be the descendents of Rakhine people seems to share a high frequency of Indian and a low frequency of East Asian specific maternal haplogroups.[39][40] Genetic studies indicate that the Rakhine population mainly shares certain similarities with East Asian groups, particularly in specific Y-chromosomal markers, though these genetic patterns do not necessarily correlate with all aspects of their physical appearance.[41] Despite this diversity, all identify as Rakhine, a community comprising seven ethnic groups.[42]
Their names are typically inRakhine andBurmese language having burmese honorifics and also using astrology-based naming system resemblingBurmese names.[citation needed]
There are a number of key political parties and armed groups representing the Rakhine Buddhist people in Myanmar, advocating for the preservation of their cultural identity, greater autonomy and political rights within the country's complex ethnic landscape.
The key political parties associated with the Rakhine people include theArakan National Party (ANP),Arakan League for Democracy (ALD),Arakan Front Party (AFP),Arakan National Council (ANC),United League of Arakan (ULA) and theRakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP). All of these parties commonly advocate for the rights and interests of the Rakhine ethnic group. Among these parties, some, like theANP,AFP, and RNDP, are accused of anti-Rohingya, Islamophobia, and promoting hardline ethnic nationalism andultranationalism.[43][44]
There are also ethnic armed organizations associated with the Rakhine people which includes theArakan Army (AA),Arakan Liberation Army (ALA),Arakan Independence Alliance (AIA), and theArakan Army in Kayin State. These groups aim to secure greater autonomy and self-determination for the Rakhine people.[45]
The most notableethnic armed organisation among the Rakhine People and rebel groups in Myanmar is theArakan Army. Founded in April 2009, the AA is the military wing of theUnited League of Arakan (ULA). It is currently led by Commander-in-ChiefMajor GeneralTwan Mrat Naing and vice deputy commander-in-chiefBrigadier GeneralNyo Twan Awng. The Arakan Army states that the objective of its armed revolution is to restore the sovereignty of the Arakan people.[46] It was declared a terrorist organization in 2020 by Myanmar, and again by theState Administration Council junta in 2024.
The ideology of the Arakan Army is centered on the following:
The Rakhine Army has significantly challenged the Burmese junta's military might and has garnered considerable support among local populations.[citation needed]
Rakhine people share some historical and cultural similarities with severalNortheastern Indian and Bangladesh tribes, particularly those in theChittagong Hill Tracts,Mizoram, andManipur. Communities like the Marma people of Rakhine have cultural parallels with theChakma andTripuri tribes in India sharing similar traditions in attire, festivals, and cuisine.
According to the 2022 census, there are about 11,195 Rakhines living in Bangladesh.[47] Outside of Myanmar, a sizable Rakhine community exists in the southeast districts of Bangladesh, namely inKhagrachhari,Rangamati,Bandarban and southern Cox's Bazar, with theMong circle in Khagrachari having administrative duties. There is a small community of Rakhine people inhabiting the coastal areas ofPatuakhali,Borguna andCox's Bazar, having migrated to Bangladesh fromMyanmar before the formation of these two contemporary countries. The total population of the community as of 2020 is 16,000.[48] But according to the Joshua Project, the total population is 20,000.[49] The Rakhine people and the local Bengali population developed a unique dialect through which they could communicate. The Rakhine people were able to preserve their culture, language, and religion in Bengal. Rakhines observe Rakhine festival such as Sanggreng and Nai-chai ka.[36] The last Rakhine language school in Kuakata closed in 1998 due to shortage of funds, In January 2006, Chin Than Monjur, opened a Rakhine language community school which expanded into three news schools and used Rakhine language books from Myanmar. The schools were forced to close due to shortage of funds.[50]
A small population of Rakhine people referred as theBarua, Magh, and Marma people exists in India, primarily in the state of West Bengal and Northeastern parts. Around 35,722Marma people resides in theTripura state of India.[51] These communities are believed to have migrated from Myanmar's Rakhine State and are predominantlyTheravada Buddhists. The Barua and Magh communities in India are officially recognized as Scheduled Tribes (ST), and they have integrated into local society while preserving aspects of their distinct identity. Rakhine descendants spread as far north asTripura state inIndia, where they are known as theMog.
In November 2017, over 1,500 Rakhine Buddhists crossed intoMizoram due to clashes between the Arakan Army and Myanmar's military. While Mizoram has been supportive of refugees with shared ethnic ties, the influx of Rakhine Buddhists presented a different scenario betweenMizo-Rakhine relations.[52][53]
The 150-year old Khaddya Song Chansai Rakhine cemetery inTaltali Upazila,Barguna District of Bangladesh was forcefully taken by local land grabbers in 2017. The Rakhine population in the Barguna andPatuakhali Districts decreased by 95%, from 50,000 in the 20th century to 2,561 in 2014, with Rakhines leaving Bangladesh due to illegal land-grabbing and persecution. Lands owned by them in the districts decreased by 81%.[54][55] Rakhine land is also being taken over by politicians in Patuakhali District.[56][57]
The Rakhine are one of the four main Buddhist ethnic groups of Burma (the others being theBurman,Shan andMon people). Rakhine culture is similar to the mainstreamBurmese culture but with moreIndian influence, likely due to its geographical isolation from the Burmese mainland divided by theArakan Mountains and its closer proximity toIndia. Traces of Indian influence remain in many aspects of Arakanese culture, including its literature, music, and cuisine. The traditional Rakhinekyin wrestling is a cherished game in their culture. Rakhinemont di, consisting of rice vermicelli noodles, is popular dish acrossMyanmar.
Almost all Rakhine people are followers of Theravada Buddhism. Rakhine State is home to many Buddhist temples reflecting the region's spiritual heritage.
Rakhine people who reside in Bangladesh, mainly theChittagong Hill Tracts, are known as theMarma people and also follow Buddhism.[58]
The history of the Arakanese can be traced through the Arakanese chronicles, which include works such asMaha Razawin,Rakhine Razawin,Rakhine Razawin Haung,Dhanyawaddy Ayedawbon,Rakhine Razawin Thit and others. These texts remain untranslated to english still.[59]
Sangrai is one of the main traditional ceremonies of the Marmas and Rakhines in which they celebrate the New Year with their own rules. In the case of the Marmas, it is celebrated according to theirBurmese calendar.
The main attraction of Sangrai is the water sport called Marmara "Ri Long Poye". Thiswater sports festival is held on the last day of Sangrai festival. Sangrai water sports are performed not only by the Marmas, but also by the Dai tribes of Southeast Asia,Myanmar,Thailand,Laos,Cambodia andChina in mid-April. In Myanmar, such events are called "Thingyan" and in Thailand and Laos this ceremony is called "Sankran". "Sankran" in Thai means change. Sangrai actually means saying goodbye to the old year and welcoming the new year. At the same time, the newJhum farming season in theChittagong Hill Tracts begins after Sangrai. Not only Jhum farming, the Marmaras do not get married again after theMaghifull moon until Sangrai, which means that the Marmaras in Sangrai mean to start anew by throwing away all the old things, including the beginning of the new year. And so the Marmaras celebrate the New Year with a joyous ceremony in the hope of blessings and good wishes.
The Rakhine People also observe theBuddha Purnima (Vesak). It is also known as the Buddha's Birthday worldwide. This is the anniversary of three important events in Buddha's life—his birth, his attainment ofenlightenment, and his death. It is observed on the full moon day of the month ofVaisakha (usually in May).
Pavarana is a Buddhistholy day which is also celebrated by the Rakhine people on Aashvinfull moon of thelunar month. This usually occurs on the full moon of the 11th month. It marks the end of the three lunar months ofVassa, sometimes called "Buddhist Lent." The day is marked in some Asian countries whereTheravada Buddhism is practiced.On this day at night, lanterns are blown into the sky to honor the heritage ofGautam Buddha.
TheRakhine flag features two colors, white and red, with the Shrivatsa symbol placed at the center on a blue circular background.
TheShrivatsa symbol at the centre is the symbol ofRakhine State and its people.[citation needed]
Rakhine cuisine is known for its bold, flavorful dishes that often feature seafood, reflecting the coastal nature of the Rakhine State. Traditional dishes likeMont di, a spicy rice noodle soup with fish broth, and Rakhine Moti, a pungent noodle soup, are staples that highlight the region's love for bold, savory tastes. The cuisine also features a variety of seafood, including prawns, crab, and fish, often prepared in flavorful curries or grilled to perfection. Another notable dish is Rakhine Moat Te Thoat, a refreshing salad made with rice vermicelli, fish cake, and fried beans. Rakhine food is distinguished by its emphasis on spiciness, sourness, and the use of locally sourced ingredients.
TheRakhine calendar is a traditional variant of the Burmese lunisolar calendar. It was launched by King Thuriya Thehta of theDhanyawadi Kingdom. The Arakanese calendar mainly uses the older Makaranta system. In this system, intercalary months are regulated by the Metonic cycle of 19 years, as propounded by the Hindu astronomer Raja-Mathan.[60] Notably, in great leap years, the Arakanese calendar adds an extra intercalary day to the month of Tagu, unlike the Burmese calendar, which adds it to Nayon. It is also used by theChakma andMarma ethnic of Bangladesh.[61]
Rakhine traditional sports are deeply rooted in the region's cultural heritage, with wrestling and boat racing being particularly prominent.Among the prominent sports isKyin Wrestling, known locally as "Kyin," is a traditional form of wrestling which is significant cultural practice among the Rakhine people. Competitions are often held during major events, such as Rakhine State Day, and feature participants engaging in a display of warming-up dances called "kyin kwin" before the matches commence. The rules are straightforward: no punching, no touching the face, and no attacks below the belt. The winner is determined by throwing the opponent to the ground a set number of times.[62]
Another popular traditional sport isboat racing.[63] Boat races are a cherished tradition in Rakhine, typically held during the monsoon season when the tides are favorable. The practice dates back to the reign offormer Rakhine kings and continues to be celebrated annually.
During the Burmese month ofTabodwe, the Rakhines hold tug-of-war ceremonies called yatha hswe pwe (ရထားဆွဲပွဲ).[64]
The traditional attire of Rakhines are very much likely similar to Burmese people with a very minor difference. Men wear wovenlongyis, collarless shirts, traditional jackets andGaungbaung. Women wear Blouses,Htaingmathein jacket and as well as longyi but in a different pattern such as ofAcheik.[citation needed]
The Rakhines celebrate their wedding ceremony which is referred as thamet tet pwe (meaning "ceremony of the son-in-law's ascent").[65] During the event, the groom wears a taungshay paso andgaung baung, while the bride is dressed in an outfit featuring ahtaingmathein jacket adorned with celestial beings, birds and a lion. A wedding table is prepared with paddy seeds and silver coins sprinkled across it, symbolizing prosperity and fertility. The couple then wears ceremonial wedding headdresses (ဦးသျှောင်). A sacred thread is wrapped around the wedding table multiple times. The couple offers morsels of food to their parents before removing their headdresses. The groom places his headdress on the bride's head, formalizing the wedding.[66]
The oil lamp dance (ဆီမီးကွက်အက) is a notable Rakhine dance performance in which a lighted wick of cotton, soaked in oil and placed in an earthenware saucer, serves as the centerpiece.[67] The dance is known to have originated during theDhanyawadi Dynasty. The oil lamp dance is incoporated into many of their cultural performances, primarily as an expression of devotion to the Buddha. Initially presented as a sacred offering to the Buddha, the traditional oil lamp is sometimes also frequently replaced with a candle.[68] The Shin Daing dance is also another significant cultural dance of the Rakhine heritage.[67]
The Rakhine language is aTibeto-Burman language spoken in westernMyanmar, primarily in theRakhine State. Closely related toBurmese, the language is spoken by the Rakhine andMarma peoples; it is estimated to have around one million native speakers and it is spoken as asecond language by a further million.[69]
It is closely related to and generallymutually intelligible withBurmese. Notably, Rakhine retains an /r/ sound that has become /j/ in Burmese. Rakhine utilises theBurmese alphabet.
Rakhine State is home toSanskrit inscriptions that date from the first millennium to the 1000s. These inscriptions were written inNorthern Brahmic scripts. However, these inscriptions are not ancestral to Arakanese epigraphy, which mainly uses theMon–Burmese script.[70] While some Arakanese have coined the term "Rakkhawunna" (Rakkhavaṇṇa) to describe a script that predates the usage of written Burmese, there is no contemporary lithic evidence to support the existence of such a script.
