Part ofa series on
Arabic culture
Architecture Styles Nabataean Yemeni Islamic Umayyad Abbasid Fatimid Moorish Mamluk Features Ablaq Alfiz Arabesque Arabic dome Banna'i Gardens Girih Horseshoe arch Howz Hypostyle Islamic calligraphy Islamic geometric patterns Islamic ornament Iwan Liwan Mashrabiya Riad Mosaic Multifoil arch Muqarnas Nagash painting Qadad Reflecting pool Riwaq Sahn Socarrat Stucco decoration Tadelakt Vaulting Voussoir Windcatcher Zellij Types Albarrana tower Alcázar Bazaar Caravanserai Bimaristan Hammam Kasbah Madrasa Maqam Mazar Mosque Medina quarter Qalat Ribat Sabil Shadirvan Tekyeh Well house Zawiya
Art Styles Ancient South Arabian art Nabataean art Islamic art Fatimid art Mamluk art Types Arabic calligraphy Arabic graffiti Arab carpet Arabic miniature Arabic pottery Palestinian wood carving Islamic embroidery Islamic hardstone carving Islamic garden Islamic glass Islamic ivory carving Islamic Metalwork Features Arabesque Arabic geometric patterns Banna'i Damascus steel Damask Girih tiles Hedwig glass Kiswah Muqarnas Pseudo-Arabic Zellij
Cuisine Khalij(Arabian Peninsula) Arab Mashriq(Levant) Mashriq(Mesopotamia) Mawset(Egypt) Mawset(Sudan) Arab Maghreb(North Africa)
Dress Headwear Agal Battoulah Haik Keffiyeh Litham Madhalla Sidara Taqiyah Tantour Tarboush (fez) Turban Clothing Abaya Bisht Burnous Djellaba Durra'ah Fouta towel Izaar Jellabiya Kaftan Macawis Robe of honour Sirwal Takchita Thawb Tiraz
Music Theory Arabic maqam Arab tone system Algerian scale Jins Lazma Quarter tone Rhythm in Arabic music Tarab Teslim Arabic musical instruments Great Book of Music Kitab al-Aghani Genres Arabic pop Arabic hip hop Arabic rock Arabic jazz Classical Arab music Opera Al Jeel Khaliji Raï Art music Andalusian classical music Andalusi nubah Bashraf Dawr Dulab Layali Malhun Iraqi maqam Mawwal Muwashshah Qasidah Qudud Halabiya Sama'i Tahmilah Taqsim Waslah Folk Ataaba Algerian Raï Bedouin Chaabi (Algeria) Chaabi (Morocco) Egyptian folk Fann at-Tanbura Fijiri Gnawa (North Africa) Liwa Mawwal Mezwed Samri Sawt Shaabi Zajal
Dance Ardah Belly dance Dabke Deheyeh Guedra Hagallah Khaleegy Liwa Mizmar Ouled Nail Raqs Sharqi Samri Shamadan Schikhatt Tahtib Tanoura Yowlah Zār
Scripts Old Arabic Nabataean Arabic Paleo-Arabic Classical Arabic Modern Standard Arabic
Literature Prose Epic literature Saj(ryhmed prose) Maqama Love in Arabic literature Arabic erotic literature Arabic grimoires Literary_criticism Arabic short story Tabaqat Tezkire Rihla Mirrors for princes Islamic Quran Tafsir Hadith Sīra Fiqh Aqidah Poetry Anthologies Poets Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry Modern Arabic poetry Genres Madih Hija Rithā' Waṣf Ghazal Khamriyyah Tardiyyah Khawal Fakhr Hamasah Forms Diwan Qasida Muwashshah Urjūza Mathnawi Ruba'i Nasīb Riddles Kharja Zajal Mawwal Nabati Ghinnawa Humayni Arabic prosody Bayt Ṭawīl Madīd Basīṭ Kamil Wāfir Hazaj Rajaz Ramal Munsariħ Khafīf Muqtaḍab Mujtathth Muḍāriʿ Sarīʿ Mutaqārib Mutadārik National literatures of Arab States Algeria Bahrain Comoros Djibouti Egypt Iraq Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libya Mauritania Morocco Oman Palestine Qatar Saudi Arabia Somalia Sudan Syria Tunisia U.A.E. Yemen
Science Arabic chemistry Arabic astrology Arabic astronomy Arabic geography Arabic Golden Age Arabic mathematics Arabic medicine Arabic psychology Arabic technology
Philosophy Early Arabic Philosophy Islamic Aristotelianism Islamic Platonism Islamic Logic Kalam Sufi metaphysics Sufi philosophy Farabism Avicennism Averroism Concepts Al-aql al-faal Aql bi-l-fi'l Al-Insān al-Kāmil Dhati Peace Arcs of Descent and Ascent Asabiyyah Hal Irfan Nafs Qadar Qalb Texts Liber de Causis The Theology of Aristotle Al-isharat The Book of the Apple Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity The Incoherence of the Philosophers The Incoherence of the Incoherence Hayy ibn Yaqdhan Theologus Autodidactus On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy Muqaddimah Sicilian Questions Fusus al-Hikam
Mythology Ababil Atlantis of the Sands Bahamut Beast of the Earth Book of Idols Book of Wonders Buraq Dandan Falak Ghoul Hinn Houri Ifrit Iram of the Pillars Jinn Karkadann Kujata Luqman Magic carpet Marid Mount Qaf Nasnas One Thousand and One Nights Qareen Qutrub Roc Shaddad Shadhavar Shams al-Ma'arif She-Camel of God Wāḳwāḳ Zulfiqar Zarqa al Yamama Fictional Arab people Aladdin Abdul Alhazred Ali Baba Altaïr Ibn-La'Ahad Battal Gazi Hayy ibn Yaqdhan Kara Ben Nemsi King Marsile Layla and Majnun Othello Palamedes Princess Jasmine Ra's al Ghul Sindbad Talia al Ghul
Spirituality North Arabian deities Allah Al-‘Uzzá Al-Lat Manāt Dushara Chaabou Manaf Nuha Al-Kutbay Asira Awal Azizos Bajir Quzah Manāt Manāt A'ra Abgal Aglibol Al-Qaum Atarsamain Baalshamin Bēl Hubal Suwa' Theandrios Wadd Malakbel Orotalt Ruda Sa'd Yarhibol Isāf and Nā'ila South Arabian deities Almaqah Amm Anbay Athtar Dhat-Badan Haubas Ta'lab Qaynan Basamum Dhul Khalasa Haukim Nasr Sīn Ya'uq Yaghūth Yatha
v t e

Maghrebiscript orMaghribi script orMaghrebi Arabic script (Arabic:الخط المغربي) refers to a loosely related family ofArabic scripts that developed in theMaghreb (North Africa),al-Andalus (Iberia), andBilad as-Sudan (theWest AfricanSahel). Maghrebi script is directly derived from theKufic script,^[1][2][3] and is traditionally written with a pointed tip (القلم المدبَّب), producing a line of even thickness.^[4]

The script is characterized by rounded letter forms, extended horizontal features, and final open curves below the baseline. It also differs fromMashreqi scripts in the notation of the lettersfaa' (Maghrebi:ڢ ; Mashreqi:ف) andqāf (Maghrebi:ڧ ; Mashreqi:ق).^[5]

For centuries, Maghrebi script was used to write Arabicmanuscripts and recordAndalusi andMoroccan literature, whether inClassical Arabic,Maghrebi Arabic, orAmazigh languages.^[6]

Arabic script first came to the Maghreb with theIslamic conquests (643–709).^[7] The conquerors, led byUqba ibn Nafi, used bothHijazi andKufic scripts, as demonstrated in coins minted in 711 underMusa ibn Nusayr.^[8] Maghrebi script is a direct descendant of the old Kufic script that predatedIbn Muqla'sal-khat al-mansub (الخَط المَنْسُوبproportioned line) standardization reforms, which affected Mashreqi scripts.^[4] TheArabic script in itsIraqi Kufic form spread from centers such asFes,Cordoba, andQayrawan throughout the region along withIslam, as the Quran was studied and transcribed.^[4][8]Qayrawani Kufic script developed inal-Qayrawan from the Iraqi Kufic script.^[8]

Early on, there were two schools of Maghrebi script: the African script (الخط الإفريقي,al-khaṭṭ al-ʾifrīqiyy) and the Andalusi script (الخط الأندلسي,al-khaṭṭ al-ʾandalusiyy).^[8] The African script evolved inIfriqiya (Tunisia) from Iraqi Kufic by way of the Kufic ofQairawan.^[8] The Andalusi script evolved in Iberia from theDamascene Kufic script with the establishment of the secondUmayyad state, which would become theCaliphate of Córdoba.^[8] The Andalusi script was particular for its rounded letters, as attested to inAl-Maqdisi's geography bookThe Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Regions.^[8] The African script had spread throughout the Maghreb before the spread of the Andalusi script.^[8] One of the most famous early users of the Arabic script wasSalih ibn Tarif, the leader of theBarghawata Confederacy and the author of a religious text known as theQuran of Salih.^[8][9]

Inal-Maghreb al-Aqsa (المغرب الأڧصى, 'the Far West', modern-dayMorocco), the script developed independently from the Kufic of theMaghrawa andBani Ifran under theIdrisid dynasty (788–974);^[8] it gainedMashreqi features under the Imam aIdris I, who came fromArabia.^[8] The script under the Idrisids was basic and unembellished; it was influenced by Iraqi Kufic, which was used on theIdrisid dirham.^[8]

Under theAlmoravid dynasty, the Andalusi script spread throughout the Maghreb, reachingQairawan; theJerīd region, however, kept the African script.^[8] A version of Kufic with florid features developed at this time.^[10] TheUniversity of al-Qarawiyyin, theAlmoravid Qubba, and theAlmoravid Minbar bear examples ofAlmoravid Kufic.^[11][12]

The Kufic script of theAlmoravid dinar was imitated in amaravedí issued byAlfonso VIII of Castile.^[13][14]

The minbar of theal-Qarawiyyin Mosque, created in 1144, was the "last major testament of Almoravid patronage," and features what is now calledMaghrebi thuluth, an interpretation of Easternthuluth anddiwani traditions.^[15]

Illuminated parchment manuscript ofIbn Tumart'sCounterpart of the Muwatta (محاذي الموطأ) copied for the Almohad sultanYaqub al-Mansur around 1193. The script is Maghrebi thuluth in gold withlapis lazuli vocalization.

Under theAlmohad dynasty,Arabic calligraphy continued to flourish and a variety of distinct styles developed.^[8] The Almohad caliphs, many of whom were themselves interested in Arabic script, sponsored professional calligraphers, inviting Andalusi scribes and calligraphers to settle inMarrakesh, Fes,Ceuta, andRabat.^[8][15] The Almohad caliphAbu Hafs Umar al-Murtada established the first public manuscript transcription center at the madrasa of his mosque in Marrakesh (now theBen Youssef Madrasa).^[8][16]

The Maghrebi thuluth script was appropriated and adopted as an official "dynastic brand" used in different media, from manuscripts to coinage to fabrics.^[15] The Almohads also illuminated certain words or phrases for emphasis withgold leaf andlapis lazuli.^[15]

For centuries, the Maghrebi script was used to write Arabicmanuscripts that were traded throughout the Maghreb.^[17] According toMuhammad al-Manuni [ar], there were 104 paper mills inFes under the reign ofYusuf Ibn Tashfin in the 11th century, and 400 under the reign of SultanYaqub al-Mansur in the 12th century.^[18]

In theEmirate of Granada under theNasrid dynasty, and particularly underYusuf I andMuhammad V, Arabicepigraphy further developed.^[19] Kufic inscriptions developed extended vertical strokes forming ribbon-like decorative knots.^[19] Kufic script also had "an enormous influence on the decorative and graphic aspects of Christian art."^[19]

وفتحت بالسيف الجزيرة
"And the peninsula was conquered with the sword"

يبنون القصور تخدما
"They build palaces diligently"

Epigraphic samples from theCourt of the Myrtles: whatMuhammad Kurd Ali described as Andalusimushabbak (sinuous) script (خط أندلسي مُشَبَّك), or what Western sources refer to as Nasrid cursive.^[20]

In Iberia, the Arabic script was used to writeRomance languages such asMozarabic,Portuguese,Spanish orLadino.^[22] This writing system was referred to asAljamiado, fromʿajamiyah (عجمية).^[23]

Maghrebi script at theBou Inania Madrasa.

Foliate Marinid Kufic atAl-Attarine Madrasa.

Waves of migration from Iberia throughout the history of al-Andalus impacted writing styles in North Africa.Ibn Khaldun noted that the Andalusi script further developed under theMarinid dynasty (1244–1465), when Fes receivedAndalusi refugees.^[8] In addition to Fes, the script flourished in cities such as Ceuta,Taza,Meknes,Salé, and Marrakesh, although the script experienced a regression in rural areas far from the centers of power.^[8] The Fesi script spread throughout much of the Islamic west.Octave Houdas [fr] gives the exception of the region aroundAlgiers, which was more influenced by the African script of Tunisia.^[8]Muhammad al-Manuni [ar] noted that Maghrebi script essentially reached its final form during the Marinid period, as it became independent of the Andalusi script.^[8] There were three forms of Maghrebi script in use: one in urban centers such as those previously mentioned, one in rural areas used to write in bothArabic andAmazigh, and one that preserved Andalusi features.^[8] Maghrebi script was also divided into different varieties: Kufic, mabsūt, mujawhar, Maghrebi thuluth, and musnad (z'mami).^[8]

The reforms in theSaadi period (1549–1659) affected manuscript culture and calligraphy.^[8] The Saadis founded centers for learning calligraphy, including the madrasa of theMouassine Mosque, which was directed by a dedicated calligrapher as was the custom in theMashreq.^[8] SultanAhmad al-Mansur himself was proficient in Maghrebi thuluth, and even invented a secret script for his private correspondences.^[8] Decorative scripts flourished under the Saadi dynasty and were used in architecture, manuscripts, and coinage.^[8]

A 1682 peace treaty signed with theDutch Republic under SultanIsmail Ibn Sharif.

The 1787Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship created under SultanMohammed ben Abdallah.

Maghrebi script was supported by the 17th-centuryAlawite sultansAl-Rashid andIsmail.^[8] Under the reign of SultanMuhammad III, the script devolved into an unrefined, illegiblebadawi script (الخط البدوي) associated with rural areas.^[24][17] Under SultanSuleiman, the script improved in urban areas and particularly in the capitalMeknes.^[8] Meanwhile, Rabat and Salé preserved some features of Andalusi script, and some rural areas such asDukāla,Beni Zied, andal-Akhmas excelled in the Maghrebi script.^[8]

The script quality then regressed again, which ledAhmed ibn Qassim ar-Rifā'ī ar-Ribātī to start a script reform and standardization movement asIbn Muqla andIbn al-Bawwab had done in theMashriq.^[8] He authoredStringing the Pearls of the Thread (نظم لآلئ السمط في حسن تقويم بديع الخط), a book in the form of anurjuza on the rules of Maghrebi script.^[8][25]

Muhammad Bin Al-Qasim al-Qundusi, active in Fes from 1828–1861, innovated a unique style known asal-Khatt al-Qundusi (الخط القندوسي).^[19]

AfterMuhammad at-Tayib ar-Rudani [ar] introduced the first Arabiclithographic printing press to Morocco in 1864, themujawher variety of the Maghrebi script became the standard for printing body text, although other varieties were also used.^[26][8]

Page of a lithographed book inmujawhar script, circa 1896.

Arabic of theTreaty of Fes (right) written in amujawhar style.

TheFrench Protectorate in Morocco represented a crisis for Maghrebi script, asLatin script became dominant ineducation and public life, and theMoroccan Nationalist Movement fought to preserve Maghrebi script in response.^[8] In 1949, Muhammad bin al-Hussein as-Sūsī andAntonio García Jaén publishedTa'līm al-Khatt al-Maghrebi (تعليم الخط المغربي) a series of five booklets teaching Maghrebi script printed in Spain.^[27][28][29]

Additionally, books from theMashreq printed innaskh scripts were imported for use in schools and universities, and handwriting began to be taught with mashreqi letter forms.^[30]

In the period after independence, there were a number of initiatives to modernize Arabic script to suit thetypewriter, prominent among which was that of the Moroccan linguistAhmed al-Akhdar al-Ghazal [ar] of theInstitute for Studies and Research on Arabization: Standard Arabic Script (الحرف العربي المعياري).^[30]

In 2007,Muḥammad al-Maghrāwī andOmar Afa [ar] cowroteMaghrebi Script: History, Present, and Horizons (الخط المغربي: تاريخ وواقع وآفاق).^[31][32] The following year, theMuhammad VI Prize for the Art of Maghrebi Script, organized by theMoroccan Ministry of Islamic Affairs [ar], was announced.^[33][34]

In early 2020, the President of Tunisia,Kais Saied, garnered significant media attention for his handwritten official letters in the Maghrebi script.^[35][36]

In the bookal-Khat al-Maghrebi, five main subscripts of Maghrebi script are identified:^[37]

1. Maghrebi Kufic (كوفي مغربي) variations ofKufic script used in theMaghreb andal-Andalus.
   • Almoravid Kufic (كوفي مرابطي)^[38] a decorative script that does not receiveArabic diacritics. It was used incoin minting and is usually accompanied by fine floral designs.^[39] TheAlmoravid minbar of theKutubiyya Mosque in Marrakesh features a fine example.
   • Almohad Kufic (كوفي موحدي)
   • Marinid Kufic (كوفي مريني)
   • Alawite Kufic (كوفي علوي)
   • Qayrawani Kufic (كوفي قيرواني)
   • Pseudo Kufic (شبه كوفي)
2. Mabsout (مبسوط) script, used forbody text and to write the Quran, similar in usage to the easternNaskh.^[40]
   • Andalusi Mabsout
   • Saadi Mabsout
   • Alawite Mabsout

     

3. Mujawher (مجوهر) cursive script, mainly used by the king to announce laws.^[40] This is the script that was used for body text whenlithographic prints started to be produced in Fes.^[26]
4. Thuluth Maghrebi (ثلث مغربي) script, formerly called Mashreqi (مشرقي) or Maghrebized Mashreqi (مشرقي متمغرب) a script inspired by the MashreqiThuluth script.^[40] It is mainly used as a decorative script for book titles and walls in mosques. It was used as an official script by theAlmohads.^[15]
5. Musnad (مسند) script, or Z'mami (زمامي) script, a cursive script mainly used by courts and notaries in writing marriage contracts.^[41] This script is derived fromMujawher, and its letters in this script lean to the right.^[41] Because is difficult to read, this script was used to write texts that the author wanted to keep obscure, such as texts about sorcery.

In addition,Muhammad Bin Al-Qasim al-Qundusi, a 19th-century Sufi calligrapher based in Fes, developed a flamboyant style now known asQandusi (قندوسي) script.^[42]

Among the publications ofOctave Houdas [fr], a 19th-century Frenchorientalist, dealing with the subject of Maghrebi script, there areEssai sur l'Ecriture Maghrebine (1886)^[2] andRecueil de Lettres Arabes Manuscrites (1891).^[43] In 1886, he identified 4 main subscripts within the Maghrebi script family:^[44][45]

• Qairawani—"smooth and even"^[45]
• Andalusi—"small, compact, and jerky"^[45]
• Fasi—"large, round, and elegant"^[45]
• Sudani—"thicker and blacker"^[45]

Various West African Arabic scripts, also calledSudani scripts (in reference toBilad as-Sudan), also fall under the category of Maghrebi scripts, including:

• Suqi (سوقي) named after the town ofSuq, though also used inTimbuktu. It is associated with theTuareg people.^[44]
• Fulani (فولاني)
• Hausawi (هاوساوي)
• MauretanianBaydani (بيضاني موريطاني)
• Kanemi (كنيمي) or Kanawi, is associated with the region ofKano in modern-day Chad and northern Nigeria, associated withBorno—alsoBarnawi script^[44]
• Saharan^[44][46]

• 
  Suqi script
• 
  Fulani script
• 
  Hausawi script
• 
  Baydani script
• 
  Kanemi script

One of the prominent ways Maghrebi scripts differ from scripts of the Arabic-speaking East is the dotting of the lettersfaa' (ف) andqoph (ق). In eastern tradition, thefaa' is represented by a circle with a dot above, while in Maghrebi scripts the dot goes below the circle (ڢ).^[5] In eastern scripts, theqoph is represented by a circle with two dots above it, whereas the Maghrebiqoph is a circle with just one dot above (ڧ), similar to the easternfaa'.^[5] In fact, concerns over the preservation of Maghrebi writing traditions played a part in the reservations of the Moroccanulama against importing the printing press.^[48]

Additionally, Nico van den Boogert notes that in Maghrebi script:

• the loop ofṢād (ص) andḌād (ض)has no "tooth"^[4]
• the stems of alif (ا),lam (ل),lamalif (لا),Ṭāʾ (ط), andẒāʾ (ظ) are drawn with a knot at the end^[4]
• the stems ofṬāʾ (ط), andẒāʾ (ظ) are drawn diagonally^[4]
• the finalalif (ـا) is written top-to-bottom^[4]
• the final and isolateddāl (د) anddhāl (ذ) resemble initial and medialKaph (كـ)^[4]

Additionally, Maghrebi scripts differ from Mashreqi scripts in that Maghrebi scripts are traditionally written with a pointed tip instead of a chisel tip. As a result, Maghrebi scripts typically have less contrast in line thickness than Mashreqi scripts, which have wider horizontal strokes and thinner vertical strokes.

• Qurans in Maghrebi scripts
• 
  Blue Qur'an, 9th to early 10th-century, from either al-Andalus or Tunisia.^[49]
• 
  TheZirid "Nurse's Quran."Qairawan, early 11th century.^[50][51]
• 
  Almoravid-Almohad period
• 
  Moroccan Quran from around 1300.^[52]
• 
  Andalusi Quran, late 13th–early 14th century.^[53]
• 
  A page of thePink Quran withilluminated diacritics.Al-Andalus 14th century.^[54]
• 
  Hafsid Quran donated to theKasbah Mosque by CaliphAbu Faris Abd al-Aziz II in 1405.^[53]
• 
  17th or 18th century Moroccan Quran
• 
  18th century Moroccan Quran.^[53]
• 
  Al-Fatiha in the Sudani script. North-west Africa, 19th century.Chester Beatty Library
• 
  Quran inmabsūt script

• Rashi script
• Tifinagh

• O. Houdas, "Essai sur l'écriture maghrebine", inNouveaux mélanges orientaux, IIe série vol. xix., Publications des Langues Vivantes Orientales (Paris 1886)
• N. van den Boogert,on the origin of Maghribi scriptArchived 2016-11-18 at theWayback Machine

Wikimedia Commons has media related toMaghrebi script.

• Arabic article
• Example of a Quran in Maghrebi scriptArchived 2011-09-27 at theWayback Machine

• Arabic calligraphy
• Islamic culture
• Maghrebi Arabic
• Culture of Morocco
• Culture of Algeria
• Culture of Tunisia
• Culture of Mali

• CS1 French-language sources (fr)
• CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar)
• CS1 uses Arabic-language script (ar)
• CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
• CS1 maint: location missing publisher
• Articles with short description
• Short description matches Wikidata
• Articles containing Arabic-language text
• Articles containing Moroccan Arabic-language text
• Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images
• Webarchive template wayback links
• Commons category link is on Wikidata