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| Macro-Jê | |
|---|---|
| Macro-Gê | |
| Geographic distribution | |
| Linguistic classification | One of the world's primary language families (Jê–Tupi–Carib?) |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | nucl1710 (Nuclear–Macro–Je) |
 The Macro-Jê families of Kaufman's conception | |
Macro-Jê (also spelledMacro-Gê) is a medium-sizedlanguage family inSouth America, mostly inBrazil but also in theChiquitanía region inSanta Cruz,Bolivia. It is centered on theJê language family, with most other branches currently being single languages due to extinctions.
The Macro-Jê family was first proposed in 1926, and has undergone moderate modifications since then.
Eduardo Ribeiro of theUniversity of Chicago finds no evidence to classifyFulniô (Yatê) andGuató as Macro-Jê,pace Kaufman, norOtí,pace Greenberg. Ribeiro does includeChiquitano,paceRodrigues.[1]: 263–4
Glottolog accepts a 'Nuclear Macro-Je' consisting of Jean, Karaja, Krenak-Maxakalian, Ofaie, Rikbaktsa, and Yabutian (Jabuti), with extinctJeicó unclassified within the family. Lexical parallels with Kamakanan and Purian have yet to be corroborated with reconstructions; the similarities with Purian disappear once Coropo is reclassified as Maxakalian. It notes suggestive grammatical similarities with Bororoan, Kariri, and Chiquitano, of the kind also shared with Tupian and Cariban, but little lexical evidence.
These languages share irregular morphology with theTupi andCarib families, and Rodrigues (2000) and Ribeiro connect them all as aJe–Tupi–Carib family.
Pache (2018) suggests a distant genetic relationship between Macro-Jê andChibchan.[2]
Nikulin (2020) proposes the following internal classification of Macro-Jê:[3]
Nikulin (2020) does not accept the following languages and language families as part of Macro-Jê.
However, Nikulin (2023) considersChiquitano to be a Macro-Jê language.[4]
Jolkesky (2016) proposes the following internal classification of Macro-Jê:[5]: 794–795
Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal "probable".[6]
| Proto-Macro-Jê | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Macro-Jê languages |
| Lower-order reconstructions | |
Proto-Macro-Jê is notable for having relatively few consonants and a large vocalic inventory. There are also complex onsets withrhotics, as well as contrastivenasalization for vowels.
Phonological inventory of Proto-Macro-Jê as reconstructed by Nikulin (2020):[3]
For a list of Proto-Macro-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020), see the correspondingPortuguese article.
Many Macro-Jê languages have been in contact with various languages of theTupí-Guaraní family, which resulted in lexical borrowings. For instance, Ribeiro (2012) finds a number ofApyãwa loanwords in Karajá (such asbèhyra 'carrying basket',kòmỹdawyra 'andu beans',hãrara 'macaw (sp.)',tarawè 'parakeet (sp.)',txakohi 'Txakohi ceremonial mask',hyty 'garbage (Javaé dialect)') as well as several Karajá loans inApyãwa (tãtã 'banana',tori 'White man',marara 'turtle stew',irãwore 'Irabure ceremonial mask'),Parakanã, andAsuriní of Trocará (sata 'banana',toria 'White man').[1]: 10–12 Loans from one of theLíngua Geral varieties (Língua Geral Paulista orLíngua Geral Amazônica) have been found inKarajá (jykyra 'salt',mỹkawa 'firearm',brùrè 'hoe',kòmỹta 'beans',mabèra 'paper (Xambioá dialect)',ĩtajuwa 'money (dated)'),Maxakalí (ãmãnex 'priest',tãyũmak 'money',kãmãnok 'horse',tapayõg 'Black man'),Ritual Maxakalí (kõnõmĩy 'boy',kõyãg 'woman',petup 'tobacco',pakõm 'banana',tapuux 'foreigner',xetukxeka 'potato'), andKrenak (tuŋ 'flea',krai 'non-Indigenous person, foreigner').[7]Chiquitano has borrowed extensively from an unidentified Tupí-Guaraní variety; one example is Chiquitanotakones [takoˈnɛs] 'sugarcane', borrowed from a form close toParaguayan Guaranítakuare'ẽ 'sugarcane'.[8]: 8
Some Macro-Jê languages from different branches have secondarily contacted with each other, also resulting in lexical loans. Ribeiro (2012), for instance, identifies severalKarajá loans inMẽbêngôkre, especially in the dialect spoken by theXikrin group. These loans are thought to have entered Mẽbêngôkre from the variety spoken by the Xambioá group of the Karajá people. Examples includewarikoko (Kayapó dialect) orwatkoko (Xikrin dialect) 'tobacco pipe',rara 'kind of basket',wiwi 'song, chant',bikwa 'relative, friend',bero 'puba flour', borrowed from Karajáwerikòkò,lala,wii,bikòwa,bèrò.[1]: 13
Loanwords fromBrazilian Portuguese are found in many, if not all, Macro-Jê languages spoken in Brazil. Examples from Maxakalí includekapex 'coffee',komenok 'blanket',kapitõg 'captain',pẽyõg 'beans',mug 'bank',tenemiyam 'TV' (borrowed from Portuguesecafé,cobertor,capitão,feijão,banco,televisão);[7] in Karajá, Ribeiro (2012) documents the Portuguese loansnieru 'money' andmaritò 'suit, jacket' (fromdinheiro,paletó), among others.[1]: 18
There is a significant number of loanwords fromChiquitano or from an extinct variety close to Chiquitano inCamba Spanish, includingbi 'genipa',masi 'squirrel',peni 'lizard',peta 'turtle, tortoise',jachi 'chicha leftover',jichi 'worm;jichi spirit', among many others.[8]
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities withArawakan languages due to contact.[5]
