Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas",[11] Machu Picchu is one of the most iconic symbols of theInca civilization and a major archaeological site in the Americas. Built around 1450, it is believed to have served as an estate for the Inca emperorPachacuti, though no contemporary written records exist to confirm this. The site was abandoned roughly a century later, likely during theSpanish conquest. Modernradiocarbon dating places its occupation betweenc. 1420 and 1530.[12]
Machu Picchu was constructed in theclassical Inca style, featuring finely crafteddry-stone walls. Notable structures include theTemple of the Sun, theTemple of the Three Windows, and theIntihuatana ritual stone. Although the site was known locally and reached in the early 20th century by Peruvian explorerAgustín Lizárraga, it was brought to international attention in 1911 by American historianHiram Bingham III. The original Inca name of the site may have beenHuayna Picchu, after the mountain on which part of the complex stands.[13]
The site is on a narrow saddle between two mountain peaks, Machu Picchu andHuayna Picchu. In theQuechua language,machu means 'old' or 'old person' andwayna (spelledhuayna in standardSpanish orthography) means 'young', whilepikchu refers to a 'summit', 'peak', or 'pyramid'.[15][b] Thus, the name of the site is often translated as 'old mountain' or 'old peak'.[17]
Although the original name given to the settlement by its builders is not definitively known, a 2021 study inÑawpa Pacha: Journal of the Institute of Andean Studies suggests that the site was likely called "Huayna Picchu", after thesmaller peak nearby, or simply "Picchu". According to the research, the association of the name Machu Picchu with the ruins likely began with American explorerHiram Bingham's 1911 publications, a conclusion supported by Bingham's field notes, early maps, and historical documents.[18][19]
A consensus among archaeologists is that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for his use as a retreat, most likely after a successful military campaign. Although Machu Picchu is considered to be a "royal" estate, it would not have been passed down in the line ofsuccession. Rather it was used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of theSpanish conquests in other parts of theInca Empire.[1] It is possible that most of its inhabitants died fromsmallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanishconquistadors even arrived in the area.[22]
During its use as an estate, it is estimated that about 750 people lived there, with most serving as support staff (yanaconas)[23][24] who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec,religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (mayocs) lived there as well, most likely for the ruler's well-being and enjoyment. During winter, which was usually the harsher season, staffing was reduced to a few hundred servants and a few religious specialists focused on maintenance alone.[25]
Studies of skeletal remains found at Machu Picchu show that most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. They lacked the chemical markers andosteological markers they would have if they had been living there their entire lives. Instead, research into skeletal remains has found bone damage from various species of waterparasites indigenous to different areas of Peru. There were also varying osteological stressors and varying chemical densities suggesting varying long-term diets characteristic of specific regions that were spaced apart.[26] These diets are composed of varying levels ofmaize,potatoes,grains,legumes, andfish, but the last-known short-term diet for these people was overall composed of less fish and more corn. This suggests that several of the immigrants were from more coastal areas and moved to Machu Picchu, where corn was a larger portion of food intake.[27] Most skeletal remains found at the site had lower levels ofarthritis andbone fractures than those found in most sites of theInca Empire. Incan individuals who had arthritis and bone fractures were typically those who performed heavy physical labor (such as theMit'a) or served in theInca military.[28]
Animals are also suspected to have been brought to Machu Picchu, as there were several bones found that were not native to the area. Most animal bones found were fromllamas andalpacas. These animals naturally live at altitudes of 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) rather than the 2,400 meters (7,900 ft) elevation of Machu Picchu. Most likely, these animals were brought in from thePuna region for meat consumption and for their pelts.[29][30]Guinea pigs were also found at the site in special tomb caves, suggesting that they were at least used for funerary rituals,[31] as it was common throughout the Inca Empire to use them for sacrifices and meat.[32] Six dogs were also recovered from the site. Due to their placements among the human remains, it is believed that they served as companions of the dead.[31]
Much of thefarming done at Machu Picchu was done on its hundreds ofandenes (man-made terraces). These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure good drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. Still visible are places where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area.[33] The terraces also enabled irrigation, increasing crop yields, with maize likely being the main crop due to its ceremonial importance, alongside possible cultivation of potatoes.[34]
However, terrace farming area makes up only about 4.9 ha (12 acres) of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support the 750+ people living at Machu Picchu. This explains why studies done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu suggest it was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.[35]
It is estimated that the area around the site has received more than 1,800 mm (71 in) of rain per year since AD 1450, which was more than that needed to support crop growth. Because of the ample rainfall at Machu Picchu, it was found thatirrigation was not usually needed for the terraces. The terraces received so much rain that they were built byIncan engineers specifically to allow for drainage of excess water. Excavation and soil analyses done by Kenneth Wright[36][33] in the 1990s showed that the terraces were built in layers, with a bottom layer of larger stones covered by loose gravel.[33] On top of the gravel was a layer of mixed sand and gravel packed together, with rich topsoil covering it. Research showed that the topsoil was probably moved from the valley floor to the terraces because it was much better than the soil higher up the mountain.[37]
Little information exists surrounding human sacrifices at Machu Picchu, though it is known that many sacrifices were never given a proper burial, and their skeletal remains succumbed to the elements.[38] However, there is evidence that retainers were sacrificed to accompany a deceased noble in the afterlife.[39] Animal, liquid and dirt sacrifices to the gods were more common and were made at the Altar of the Condor. The tradition is upheld by members of theNew Age Andean religion.[40]
Machu Picchu is believed to have been abandoned in the mid-16th century, around the time of the Spanish conquest, likely due to the collapse of Inca rule and disease following European contact.[1][22] In the late 16th century, Spaniards who had recently gained control of the area documented that indigenous individuals mentioned returning to "Huayna Picchu", the name that is believed to be originally given to the site by locals.[18] The Spanish conquistadorBaltasar de Ocampo had notes of a visit during the end of the 16th century to a mountain fortress calledPitcos with sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great skill and art, all thelintels of the doors, as well the principal as the ordinary ones, being of marble and elaborately carved.[41]
Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been re-discovered and exploited in the late 19th century by the German engineerAugusto Berns.[42] Some suggest the German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier, though there's no solid evidence. Maps reference Machu Picchu as early as 1874, and a 1904 atlas labeled it as Huayna Picchu.[43][44]
Inscription "A. Lizárraga 1902" on the central window of the Temple of the Three Windows
In 1902 Peruvian explorerAgustín Lizárraga led an expedition to the area now known as Machu Picchu. After several hours of clearing undergrowth they reached the stone structures of the citadel, during that visit Lizárraga marked his surname and the year, "A. Lizárraga 1902", in charcoal on one of the walls of the Temple of the Three Windows. In 1911 American historian and explorerHiram Bingham traveled the region looking for the lost capital of theNeo-Inca state (later established to beVilcabamba), established byManco Inca after the Spanish conquest, and was led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the surname of Lizárraga and the 1902 date on the temple. Initially disappointed, he documented in his pocket field journal: "Agustín Lizárraga is discoverer of Machu Picchu and lives at San Miguel Bridge just before passing."[45][46] However, while Bingham initially acknowledged Lizárraga as the discoverer in his early writings and speeches, includingInca Land (1922), he gradually downplayed Lizárraga's role until, in his final version of the story,Lost City of the Incas (1952), Bingham claimed to have found the site himself.[47] In a 1922 letter to the head of the school he had once attended in Honolulu, Bingham wrote:[48]
I suppose that in the same sense of the word as it is used in the expression "Columbus discovered America" it is fair to say that I discovered Machu Picchu. The Norsemen and the French fishermen undoubtedly visited North America long before Columbus crossed the Atlantic. On the other hand it was Columbus who made America known to the civilized world. In the same sense of the word I "discovered" Machu Picchu—in that before my visit and report on it it was not known to the geographical and historical societies in Peru, nor to the Peruvian government.
Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.[49][50]
Partial view of Machu Picchu on 24 July 1911, with much of the site covered by dense vegetation.
Bingham was a lecturer atYale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress inSantiago, he travelled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins atChoqquequirau in theApurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city ofVitcos, reportedly located near the town ofTorontoy.[51] He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and FatherAntonio de la Calancha'sCorónica moralizada del Orden de San Agustín en el Perú (Chronicle of theAugustinians), first published in 1631. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn thatCharles Wiener had also heard of the ruins atHuayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.[52][53]
Armed with this information, Bingham's expedition went down theUrubamba River. En route, Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.[54][55]
At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu.[56] The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up to the Machu Picchu site. At the top of the mountain, they came across a small hut occupied by a couple ofQuechua people, Richarte and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Richarte's 11-year-old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.[57]
The Sacred Plaza, the Main Temple, and the Temple of the Three Windows after the 1912 clearing work. Above these structures is the Sacred Hill, which features theIntihuatana.
The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation, Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements, and photographs, noting the fine quality of Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unsure about the original purpose of the ruins, but concluded there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.[58][59]
The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals, Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple ofChuquipalta. He then crossed a pass and into the Pampaconas Valley where he found more ruins heavily buried in the jungle undergrowth atEspíritu Pampa, which he named "Trombone Pampa".[60] As was the case with Machu Picchu, the site was so heavily overgrown that Bingham could only note a few of the buildings. In 1964,Gene Savoy further explored the ruins at Espiritu Pampa and revealed the full extent of the site, identifying it asVilcabamba Viejo, where the Incas fled after the Spanish drove them from Vitcos.[61][62][63]
Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and theNational Geographic Society. The expedition conducted site clearing and archaeological work between July and November of that year, under the supervision of George Eaton and Ellwood Erdis. These efforts included burnings, vegetation removal, mapping, and excavations, many of which were carried out with the assistance of local labor organized in part by Ángel Lizárraga, younger brother of Agustín Lizárraga. The work was supported logistically by regional authorities, including the Prefect of Cusco. Excavations resumed in 1914 and 1915 during a subsequent expedition. Although Bingham proposed several hypotheses regarding the purpose and significance of the site, none have been substantiated by later research. During the expeditions, numerous artifacts were recovered and transported to Yale University. Among these was a set of 15th-century ceremonial Incan knives made frombismuth bronze, which are the earliest known artifacts to contain this alloy.[64][65]
Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice.[66] Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru throughBolivia. In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land".[67] Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history. Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators.[66] By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.[68]
In 1912, 1914 and 1915, Bingham removed thousands of artifacts from Machu Picchu—ceramic vessels, silver statues, jewelry, and human bones—and took them to Yale University for further study, supposedly for 18 months. Yale instead kept the artifacts until 2012, arguing that Peru lacked the infrastructure and systems to care for them.Eliane Karp, an anthropologist and wife of former Peruvian PresidentAlejandro Toledo, accused Yale of profiting from Peru's cultural heritage. Many of the articles were exhibited at Yale'sPeabody Museum.[69]
In 2006, Yale returned some pieces but retained more than 250 "museum-quality" pieces, claiming this was supported by federal case law of Peruvian antiquities.[70] In 2007, the Peruvian government and Yale had agreed on a joint traveling exhibition and construction of a new museum and research center in Cusco advised by Yale. Yale acknowledged Peru's title to all the objects, but would share rights with Peru in the research collection, part of which would remain at Yale for continuing study.[71] In November 2010, Yale agreed to return the disputed artifacts.[72] The third and final batch of artifacts was delivered in November 2012.[73] The artifacts are permanently exhibited at theMachu Picchu Museum–Casa Concha, located near Cusco's colonial center and owned by theNational University of San Antonio Abad del Cusco.[74]
In 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometers (125.84 sq mi) surrounding Machu Picchu a "Historic Sanctuary".[75] In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a large portion of the adjoining region, rich with theflora andfauna of thePeruvian Yungas andCentral Andean wet punaecoregions.[76]
Beyond its historical significance, Machu Picchu houses a diverse range of species. Among them are theAndean fox,puma, vizcacha,spectacled bear, and white-tailed deer. The sanctuary is also habitat for more than 420 bird species, notably thecock-of-the-rock and theAndean condor. The area hosts over 550 tree species across 74 families, including ferns, gymnosperms, and palms.[77]
In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu aWorld Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of art, urbanism, architecture and engineering" and "a unique testimony" of the Inca civilization, with the inscription covering both the archaeological complex and its surrounding landscape.[78]
Along the Urubamba river, below the ruins, surrounding the train line "street", is the town of Machu Picchu, also known asAguas Calientes (hot springs), with a post office, a train station, hotels, and other services for the many tourists. The station, calledPuente Ruinas (bridge to the ruins) is the end of the line for thetren de turismo (tourist train), which arrives every morning from Cusco and returns every afternoon. There is also a luxury hotel on the mountain, near the ruins.[79]
Machu Picchu is both a cultural and naturalUNESCO World Heritage Site. Since Hiram Bingham's expedition, growing numbers of tourists have visited the site each year, with numbers exceeding 1.5 million in 2024.[86] As Peru's most visited tourist attraction, and a major revenue generator, it is continually exposed to economic and commercial forces. In the late 1990s, the Peruvian government granted concessions to allow the construction of acable car and a luxury hotel, including a tourist complex with boutiques and restaurants and a bridge to the site.[87] These plans faced widespread protests, with critics arguing that the government had failed to conduct a proper environmental impact survey, as requested by theNational Institute of Natural Resources, which warned of potential harm to the ecosystem.[88] In 2018, plans were restarted to again construct a cable car to encourage Peruvians to visit Machu Picchu and boost domestic tourism.[89][90] Ano-fly zone exists above the area.[91]UNESCO considered including Machu Picchu on itsList of World Heritage in Danger in 2017 due to overcrowding concerns, but ultimately decided against it.[92][93]
Tourists at the main entrance to the Machu Picchu citadel
Efforts to manage the impact of tourism have included various measures over the years. In the 1980s, a rock from Machu Picchu's central plaza was moved to create a helicopter landing zone, a practice which was later stopped. In 2006, the company Helicusco sought approval for tourist flights over the site, but the license was soon rescinded.[91] In January 2010, severe flooding caused byEl Niño trapped over 4,000 people and disrupted access to Machu Picchu, leading to its temporary closure.[94] The site reopened on April 1, 2010.[95] To further address tourism's impact, stricter entrance regulations were introduced in July 2011, limiting the number of daily visitors to 2,500 per day to the citadel and 400 to Huayna Picchu.[96] In 2018, a third entrance phase was added to better manage tourism and reduce site degradation.[97] In 2024, the daily visitor limit was officially increased to 4,500, with up to 5,600 permitted during peak season.[98][99]
In May 2012, UNESCO urged additional protection measures for the site's buffer zone, especially due to the rapid growth in the nearby town ofAguas Calientes.[100] Tourist deaths at Machu Picchu fromaltitude sickness, floods, and accidents have led to criticism of UNESCO for allowing visits despite the site's high safety risks.[101][102][103][104] The trend ofnude tourism in 2014 also led to increased surveillance by Peru'sMinistry of Culture to end the practice.[105]
In recognition of efforts to manage and protect the site, Fernando Astete, who served as Chief of theNational Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu from 1994 to 2019, was honored with the "Personalidad Meritoria de la Cultura" award by the Ministry of Culture of Peru in January 2020. This award acknowledged his extensive contributions to the preservation, management, and study of Machu Picchu.[106][107]
During the2022–2023 Peruvian protests, routes to Machu Picchu were blocked, trapping thousands of tourists and leading to a government airlift of the stranded visitors.[108][109] Due to these disruptions, the Ministry of Culture closed the site indefinitely on January 22, 2023, and it was reopened on February 15, 2023.[108][110][111]
Panoramic view of Machu Picchu from Machu Picchu mountain surrounded by theUrubamba River
Machu Picchu lies in theSouthern Hemisphere, 13.111 degrees south of theequator.[112] It is 80 kilometers (50 miles) northwest ofCusco, on the crest of the mountain Machu Picchu, located about 2,430 meters (7,970 feet)above mean sea level, over 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) lower than Cusco, which has an elevation of 3,400 meters (11,200 ft).[112] As such, it had a milder climate than the Inca capital. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in South America, one of the most visited tourist attractions in Latin America and the most visited in Peru.[113]
Machu Picchu is situated above a bow of theUrubamba River, which surrounds the site on three sides, where cliffs drop vertically for 450 meters (1,480 ft) to the river at their base. The area is subject to morning mists rising from the river.[57] When inhabited by the Incas, the location of the city was a military secret, and its deep precipices and steep mountains provided natural defenses. TheInca Bridge, anInca grass rope bridge, across the Urubamba River in thePongo de Mainique, provided a secret entrance for the Inca army. Another Inca bridge was built to the west of Machu Picchu, the tree-trunk bridge, at a location where a gap occurs in the cliff that measures 6 meters (20 ft).
The city sits in a saddle between the two mountains Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu, with a view down two valleys and a nearly impassable mountain at its back.[57] The bedrock is dominantlygranite with smaller occurrences ofgranodiorite plus local dikes ofperidotite andserpentine.[114] The agricultural terraces, covering about 4.9 hectares (12 acres), complemented the site's architecture and protected against runoff and erosion. Constructed with stone retaining walls and well-drained topsoil, the terraces were built using deeper strata and stone chips to enhance drainage and ensure stability.[115] Two high-altitude routes from Machu Picchu cross the mountains back to Cusco, one through theSun Gate, and the other across the Inca bridge. Both could have been blocked easily, should invaders have approached along them.
Machu Picchu and other sites in the area are built overearthquake faults. According to research conducted in 2019, this may not be a coincidence: "[o]ne simple answer, researchers now suggest, is that that's [earthquake faults] where building materials for the site—large amounts of already fractured rock—were readily available."[116]
Between thevalley floor and the altitudinal zone of the Inca citadel, ranging from 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) to 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) meters above sea level, Machu Picchu features asubtropical highland climate, with an average annual precipitation of 2,010 millimetres (79 in) and an annual mean temperature of approximately 18 °C (64 °F). The site is characterized by steep slopes, dense vegetation, and significant rainfall, contributing to high humidity levels of 80–90%. The area is also frequently enveloped incloud cover, typical of acloud forest environment.[117]
Climate data for Machu Picchu (elevation 2,399 m (7,871 ft), 1991–2020 normals)
Layout of Machu Picchu's urban, agricultural and religious zones
The site is divided into two main sectors: an agricultural sector to the southeast composed of terraces (andenes), and an urban sector to the northeast containing residences, places of worship and warehouses. The urban sector is further split into an upper town (Hanan) and a lower town (Hurin).[119]
The architecture is adapted to the mountains. Approximately 200 buildings are arranged on wide parallel terraces around an east–west central square. The various compounds, calledkanchas, are long and narrow in order to exploit the terrain. Sophisticated channeling systems provided irrigation for the fields. Stone stairways set in the walls allowed access to the different levels across the site. The eastern section of the city was probably residential. The western section, separated by the square, was for religious and ceremonial purposes. This section contains theTorreón, the massive tower which may have been used as anobservatory.[120]
Located in the urban sector are the primary archaeological treasures and tourist attractions: theIntihuatana, theTemple of the Sun and theTemple of the Three Windows.[121]
The Popular District, or Residential District, is the place where the lower-class people lived. It includes storage buildings and simple houses.[122]
The royalty area, a sector for thenobility, is a group of houses located in rows over a slope; the residence of theamautas (wise people) was characterized by its reddish walls, and the zone of theñustas (princesses) hadtrapezoid-shaped rooms. The Monumental Mausoleum is a carved statue with a vaulted interior and carved drawings. It was used for rites or sacrifices.
The Guardhouse is a three-sided building, with one of its long sides opening onto the Terrace of the Ceremonial Rock. The three-sided style of Inca architecture is known as thewayrona style.[123]
In 2005 and 2009, theUniversity of Arkansas made detailedlaser scans of the entire site and of the ruins at the top of the adjacent Huayna Picchu mountain. The scan data is available online for research purposes.[124]
The Torreón is a semicircular, two-part structure built among the large granite blocks at Machu Picchu. It occupies the rock overlying Bingham’s "Royal Mausoleum" and, like theCoricancha at Cusco andPisac, has been described as having a "parabolic enclosure wall".[125][126] The lower part fills an irregular, cave-like space between wedged boulders and contains fineashlar masonry with several trapezoidalniches, in some places the natural rock was worked into stepped ledges and platforms. The upper part sits on an oblong, artificially shaped rock surrounded by some of the site’s finest ashlar, the rock top is carved with steps and horizontal platforms and a Z-shaped edge commonly interpreted as analtar. The upper chamber’s wall contains embedded niches and a system of three openings (eastern, south-eastern and northern); the eastern and south-eastern openings have stone pegs of uncertain function, and the northern opening is door-like but damaged.[127] A trapezoidal opening known as the “Serpent’s Door” leads onto a small platform that overlooks a series of pools and affords a view of Huayna Picchu.[125] Archaeoastronomical studies report that the openings create characteristic sunlight patterns and allow limited views of importantstar groups (for example thePleiades);[128] however, detailed 3D analyses indicate the Torreón was not a highly precise astronomical instrument but rather incorporated solar orientations for ritual and ceremonial purposes.[129]
TheIntihuatana stone aligns with solar events and sacred mountains; its function as a solar calendar remains debated.Rock-carved "mortars" in theSala de los Morteros. Once proposed as water mirrors for astronomical use, recent studies cast doubt on any calendrical function, and their original purpose remains uncertain.[130]
TheIntihuatana is aritual stone which was used by the Incas. The stone is designed to point directly at the Sun during the wintersolstice.[131] The name of the stone, likely attributed by Bingham due to a similar monument in Pisac, comes fromQuechua and means "place where the sun is tied". While its exact function is debated, scholars generally reject the popular idea that it served as a solar calendargnomon. Instead, it may have been used for horizontal solar observations and was aligned with sacred mountains and cardinal directions.[132] The stone is situated at 13°9'48" S. At midday on 11 November and 30 January, the Sun is situated almost exactly above the pillar, casting no shadow. On 21 June, the stone casts the longest shadow on its southern side, and on 21 December a much shorter shadow on its northern side.[133] Its placement may have held symbolic significance within a sacred landscape, aligning with prominent surrounding peaks such asVeronica,Salcantay, and Huayna Picchu.[134]
Inti Mach'ay is a special cave used to observe the Royal Feast of the Sun. This festival was celebrated during the Incan month ofQhapaq Raymi. It began earlier in the month and concluded on the December solstice. On this day, noble boys were initiated into manhood by an ear-piercing ritual as they stood inside the cave and watched the sunrise.[135]
Architecturally, Inti Mach'ay is often considered to be one of the most significant structure at Machu Picchu. Its entrances, walls, steps, and windows display some of the finest masonry in the Inca Empire. The cave also includes a tunnel-like window unique among Incan structures, designed so that sunlight enters the interior only for a few days around the December solstice. This precise alignment suggests that Inti Mach'ay functioned as a solar observatory associated with theCapac Raymi festival.[136] Inti Mach'ay is located on Machu Picchu's eastern side, just north of the "Condor Stone". Many of the caves surrounding this area were prehistorically used as tombs, yet there is no evidence that Mach'ay was a burial ground.[137]
Trapezoidal windows of the Temple of the Three Windows
The Temple of the Three Windows stands on the eastern side of thePlaza Sagrada, a 16 m × 16 m terrace at the heart of Machu Picchu's urban sector.[121] Its single trapezoidal wall is constructed of large, finely worked white granite blocks whose joints display helical planes unique in the site's masonry.[138]
This wall contains three oversized trapezoidal openings—dintels and jambs each carved from single stones—flanked by two smaller niches. Four terraces at the base of the wall retain the platform on its exterior face.[121]
From within the temple one can observe both sunrise and sunset across the ruins and surrounding mountains.[139] Evidence suggests it was originally roofed by a three‑wall timber truss system resting on wooden beams and pilasters set into side pockets in the masonry.[140]
During his 1911 visit, Hiram Bingham recorded a charcoal inscription on the central window reading "Lizárraga 1902", left by Agustín Lizárraga. The graffiti appears in Bingham's early photographs, published inThe Geographical Journal (December 1911) andNational Geographic Magazine (April 1912), indicating prior local knowledge and clearing of the site.[141]
The site may have been intentionally built on fault lines to provide natural drainage and a source of fractured stone for construction. According to geologist Rualdo Menegat, Machu Picchu "shows us that the Incan civilization was an empire of fractured rocks."[143]
The section of the mountain where Machu Picchu was built provided various challenges that the Incas solved with local materials. One issue was the seismic activity due to two fault lines which made mortar and similar building methods nearly useless. Instead, the Inca mined stones from some quarries at the site,[144] including one recently discovered using remote sensing techniques, which was probably located in the catchment area between theHurin andHanan before it was covered over to create the current Plaza Principal.[145] Once mined, the Inca lined the granite stones up and shaped them to fit together perfectly, stabilizing the structures. Inca walls have many stabilizing features: doors and windows are trapezoidal, narrowing from bottom to top; corners usually are rounded; inside corners often incline slightly into the rooms, and outside corners were often tied together by L-shaped blocks; walls are offset slightly from row to row rather than rising straight from bottom to top.[146]
Heavy rainfall required terraces to drain rain water and prevent mudslides, landslides, erosion, and flooding. Terraces were layered with stone chips, sand, dirt, and topsoil, to absorb water and prevent it from running down the mountain. Similar layering protected the large city center from flooding.[147] Multiple canals and reserves throughout the city provided water that could be supplied to the terraces for irrigation and to prevent erosion and flooding.[34]
The approach to moving and placing the enormous stones remains uncertain, probably involving hundreds of men to push the stones up inclines. A few stones have knobs that could have been used to lever them into position; the knobs were generally sanded away, with a few overlooked. For larger stones, the Incas likely employed ramps with gentle inclines, along with wooden rollers, levers, and ropes made frommaguey fibers. Most stones were moved from higher to lower elevations, but some, like those atOllantaytambo, were transported over long distances.[148]
Today, visitors can reach Machu Picchu via three main routes. The most popular option is the train journey from Cusco orOllantaytambo. Operated byPeruRail andInca Rail, this scenic route takes visitors to the town ofAguas Calientes, from where they can take a bus ride of 8.6 kilometres (5.3 mi) or walk to the Machu Picchu entrance.[150]
Another widely chosen route is theInca Trail, a historic path built by the Incas considered "the most famous hike in South America" byLonely Planet,[151] attracting thousands of tourists each year.[152]The trail begins at eitherPiscacucho (Km 82 on the railway to Aguas Calientes) orQ'oriwayrachina (Km 104), and, depending on the starting point, spans up to approximately 42.5 kilometres (26.4 mi), reaching an altitude of 4,200 metres (13,800 ft) atWarmi Wañusqa. It passes through theAndes and various archaeological sites before reaching theInti Punku (Sun Gate) at Machu Picchu. Due to limited permits, advance booking through a tourism agency is required.[153][154]
Alternatively, travelers can take a less conventional route that involves traveling by road to a point near theHydroelectric station. From there, they can either walk or take a short train ride to Aguas Calientes.[155] This option is generally more affordable and does not require advance booking, but it is less recommended during the rainy season due to potential landslide risks.[156]
As of November 2024, the construction of a new paved roadway right to the doorstep of the historic site is in progress and due for completion in 2025. The path, otherwise known as Santa María-Santa Teresa-Machu Picchu Hydroelectric Bridge highway, involves 28.41 kilometers (22 miles) of asphalt-paved roads that would generally reduce access time to the heritage site from 4 or 5 hours, to 2 hours.[157]
Bastante, José M.; Astete, Fernando; Fernández, Alicia; Usca, Alex I. "Estado de la cuestión: historia y arqueología de la llaqta de Machupicchu". InAstete & Bastante (2020a), pp. 141–236.
Bastante, José M.; Fernández, Alicia. "Avances de las investigaciones interdisciplinarias en Machupicchu". InAstete & Bastante (2020a), pp. 269–288.
Astete, Fernando. "Llaqta de Machupicchu: sacralidad y proceso constructivo". InAstete & Bastante (2020a), pp. 313–326.
Ochoa, Julio. "Biodiversidad anotada del Santuario Histórico de Machupicchu: especies endémicas y amenazadas". InAstete & Bastante (2020b), pp. 375–393.
Astete, Fernando (2012). "Proceso constructivo de Machu Picchu". In Villavicencio, Maritza (ed.).Perú Mágico II. Homenaje a Machu Picchu. Lima: Estruendomudo.ISBN9786124165047.
Dearborn, David S. P.; Schreiber, Katharina J.; White, Raymond E. (1 January 1987). "Intimachay: A December Solstice Observatory at Machu Picchu, Peru".American Antiquity.52 (2):346–352.doi:10.2307/281786.JSTOR281786.S2CID164181573.
Gaither, Catherine; Kent, Jonathan; Sanchez, Victor; Tham, Teresa (June 2008). "Mortuary Practices and Human Sacrifice in the Middle Chao Valley of Peru: Their Interpretation in the Context of Andean Mortuary Patterning".Latin American Antiquity.19 (2): 107, 115, 119.doi:10.1017/S1045663500007744.S2CID162727279.
Hill, Michael (2010). "Myth, Globalization, and Mestizaje in New Age Andean Religion: The Intic Churincuna (Children of the Sun) of Urubamba, Peru".Ethnohistory.57 (2): 263, 273–2m75.doi:10.1215/00141801-2009-063.
Huamán, Oliver; Córdova, Miguel; Bar, Alfredo; Chirinos, Ricardo; Huerta, Gisella; Obeso, Percy; Pino, José Luis; Díaz, José Luis; Paredes, Luis Enrique; Perales, Manuel Fernando; Castillo, Aurelio; Zambrano, Raúl; Capriata, Camila; Moreano, Wendy; Pozzi-Escot, Denise; Angeles, Rommel; Castillo, Nina; Areche, Rodrigo; Lázaro, Ernesto; Casaverde, Guido (2020). Tord, María (ed.).Rutas ancestrales del Qhapaq Ñan(PDF) (in Spanish) (1st ed.). Lima:Ministry of Culture.ISBN978-612-4391-24-8.Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved1 August 2025.
Miller, George R. (2003). "Food for the Dead, Tools for the Afterlife: Zooarchaeology at Machu Picchu". In Burger, Richard L.; Salazar, Lucy C. (eds.).The 1912 Yale Peruvian Scientific Expedition Collections from Machu Picchu: Human and Animal Remains. Yale University Publications in Anthropology. Vol. 85. New Haven: Yale University. pp. 1–63.ISBN9780913516218.
Rodriguez-Camilloni, Humberto (2009). "Reviewed Work: Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas by Richard L Burger, Lucy C. Salazar".Journal of Latin American Geography.8 (2):230–232.doi:10.1353/lag.0.0051.JSTOR25765271.S2CID144758591.
Rufino, Nonato; Alosilla, Carmen; Choque, Victoria (2014).Qullaw Qichwapa Simi Qullqan(PDF) (in Quechua). Ministry of Education of Peru. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 29 November 2014. Retrieved12 August 2024.
Cosio, José Gabriel (1912)."An Excursion to Machupicchu, Ancient City"(PDF).Revista Universitaria de la Unsaac (in Spanish).1 (2). Cusco: Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco:2–22.Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 February 2025.
Rice, Mark (2018).Making Machu Picchu: The Politics of Tourism in Twentieth-Century Peru. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-1-4696-4353-3.
Wright, Kenneth R.; Valencia Zegarra, Alfredo & Crowley, Christopher M. (May 2000a). Archaeological Exploration of the Inca Trail, East Flank of Machu Picchu and Palynology of Terraces. Final Report (Report). Denver: Wright Paleohydrological Institute.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
