Mexico is afederal republic with apresidential system of government, characterized by a democratic framework and the separation of powers into three branches:executive, legislative, and judicial. The federal legislature consists of thebicameralCongress of the Union, comprising theChamber of Deputies, which represents the population, and theSenate, which provides equal representation for each state. The Constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union, the state governments, and the municipal governments. Mexico's federal structure grants autonomy to its 32 states, and its political system is deeply influenced by indigenous traditions andEuropean Enlightenment ideals.
Mēxihco is theNahuatl term for the heartland of theAztec Empire, namely theValley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its people being known as theMexica. It is generally believed that thetoponym for the valley was the origin of the primaryethnonym for theAztec Triple Alliance, but it may have been the other way around.[28] In the colonial era (1521–1821) when Mexico was known asNew Spain this central region became theIntendency of Mexico. After New Spain achieved independence from theSpanish Empire in 1821 and became a sovereign state the Intendency came to be known as theState of Mexico, with the new country being named after its capital:Mexico City. The country's official name has changed as theform of government has changed. The declaration of independence signed on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of theCongress of Anáhuac called the territoryAmérica Septentrional (Northern America); the 1821Plan of Iguala also used América Septentrional. On two occasions (1821–1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known asImperio Mexicano (Mexican Empire). All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857, and 1917, the current constitution) used the nameEstados Unidos Mexicanos[29]—or the variantEstados-Unidos Mexicanos,[30] all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The phraseRepública Mexicana, "Mexican Republic", was used in the 1836Constitutional Laws.[31]
The earliesthuman artifacts in Mexico are chips ofstone tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago.[32] Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize, tomato, andbeans, which produced an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition frompaleo-Indian hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BC.[33] The formative period of Mesoamerica is considered one of the six independentcradles of civilization, this era saw the origin of distinct cultural traits such as religious and symbolic traditions, maize cultivation, artistic and architectural complexes as well as avigesimal (base 20) numeric system[34] that spread from the Mexican cultures to the rest of theMesoamerican cultural area. In this period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming socially stratified with an artisan class, and developing intochiefdoms. The most powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing the construction of large ceremonial centers.[35]
The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was theOlmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec cultural traits diffused through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca, and the Valley of Mexico.[36] In the subsequentpre-classical period, theMaya andZapotec civilizations developed complex centers atCalakmul andMonte Albán, respectively. During this period the first trueMesoamerican writing systems were developed in theEpi-Olmec and Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the ClassicMaya Hieroglyphic script, the earliest written histories date from this era. The tradition of writing was important after the Spanish conquest in 1521, with indigenous scribes learning to write their languages in alphabetic letters, while also continuing to create pictorial texts.[37][38]
In Central Mexico, the height of the classic period saw the ascendancy ofTeotihuacán, which formed a military and commercial empire. Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largestpyramidal structures in the pre-Columbian Americas.[39] After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued between several important political centers in central Mexico such asXochicalco andCholula. At this time, during the Epi-Classic,Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers ofOto-Manguean languages. During the early post-classic era (ca. 1000–1519 AD), Central Mexico was dominated by theToltec culture,Oaxaca by theMixtec, and the lowland Maya area had important centers atChichén Itzá andMayapán. Toward the end of the post-Classic period, theAztecs (orMexica) established dominance, establishing apolitical and economic empire based in the city ofTenochtitlan (modernMexico City), extending from central Mexico to the border with Guatemala.[40]
Storming of theTeocalli byCortez and his Troops (painted in 1848)
Although theSpanish Empire had established colonies in theCaribbean starting in 1493 the Spanish first learned of Mexico during theJuan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. TheSpanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in February 1519 whenHernán Cortés founded the Spanish city ofVeracruz. The 1521capture of Tenochtitlan and posterior founding of the Spanish capitalMexico City on its ruins was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial era during which Mexico was known asNueva España (New Spain). Two factors made Mexico a jewel in the Spanish Empire: the existence of large, hierarchically organized Mesoamerican populations that rendered tribute and performed obligatory labor and the discovery of vast silver deposits in northern Mexico.[41]
TheKingdom of New Spain was created from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown. In 1493 the pope had grantedsweeping powers to the Spanish monarchy for its overseas empire, with the proviso that the crown spread Christianity in its new realms. In 1524,King Charles I created theCouncil of the Indies based in Spain to oversee State power in its overseas territories; in New Spain the crown established a high court in Mexico City, theReal Audiencia ('royal audience' or 'royal tribunal'), and then in 1535 created theViceroyalty of New Spain. The viceroy was the highest official of the State. In the religious sphere, the Diocese of Mexico was created in 1530 and elevated to theArchdiocese of Mexico in 1546, with the archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Castilian Spanish was the language of rulers. The Catholic faith was the only one permitted, with non-Catholics and Catholics (excluding Indians) holding unorthodox views being subject to theMexican Inquisition, established in 1571.[42]
Spanish military forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer territory or quell rebellions through the colonial era. Notable Amerindian revolts in sporadically populated northern New Spain include theChichimeca War (1576–1606),[43]Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620),[44] and thePueblo Revolt (1680), theTzeltal Rebellion of 1712 was a regional Maya revolt.[45] Most rebellions were small-scale and local, posing no major threat to the ruling elites.[46] To protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutchpirates and protect the Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic (connecting toSpain) and Acapulco on the Pacific (connecting to thePhilippines). Among the best-known pirate attacks are the 1663Sack of Campeche[47] and 1683Attack on Veracruz.[48] Of greater concern to the crown was the issue of foreign invasion, especially after Britain seized in 1762 the Spanish ports ofHavana andManila in theSeven Years' War. It created a standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and expanded the northernpresidios andmissions intoAlta California. The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City was evident in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the price of maize escalated to a full-scale attack on the seats of power, with the viceregal palace and the archbishop's residence attacked by the mob.[49]
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla'sCry of Dolores on 16 September 1810, by J.J. del Moral. The call to arms marks the beginning of Mexico's War of Independence against Spanish colonial rule.
On 16 September 1810, secular priestMiguel Hidalgo y Costilla declared against "bad government" in the small town ofDolores, Guanajuato. This event, known as theCry of Dolores (Spanish:Grito de Dolores) is commemorated each year, on 16 September, as Mexico's independence day.[50] The upheaval in the Spanish Empire that resulted in the independence of most of its New World territories was due toNapoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain in 1808. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were eventually captured, Hidalgo was defrocked, and they wereexecuted by firing squad on 31 July 1811. The first 35 years after Mexico's independence were marked by political instability and the changing of the Mexican state from atransient monarchy to a fragile federated republic.[51] There were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict betweenConservatives andLiberals, andeconomic stagnation.
Former Royal Army GeneralAgustín de Iturbide became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought aconstitutional monarch from Europe. When no member of a European royal house desired the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The United States was the first country to recognize Mexico's independence, sending an ambassador to the court and sending a message to Europe via theMonroe Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor's rule was short (1822–1823) and he was overthrown by army officers in thePlan of Casa Mata.[52] After the forced abdication of the monarch, Central America andChiapas left the union to form theFederal Republic of Central America. In 1824, theFirst Mexican Republic was established. Former insurgent GeneralGuadalupe Victoria became the first president of the republic — the first of many army generals to hold the presidency. In 1829, former insurgent general and fierce LiberalVicente Guerrero, a signatory of thePlan of Iguala that achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short term in office, from April to December 1829, he abolished slavery.[53] His Conservative vice president, former Royalist GeneralAnastasio Bustamante, led a coup against him and Guerrero wasjudicially murdered.[54]
Mexico's ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable government was in question. Spainattempted to reconquer its former colony during the 1820s but eventually recognized its independence. France attempted to recoup losses it claimed for its citizens during Mexico's unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during the so-calledPastry War of 1838–1839.[55] GeneralAntonio López de Santa Anna emerged as a national hero because of his role in both these conflicts; Santa Anna came to dominate the politics for the next 25 years, often known as the "Age of Santa Anna", until his overthrow in 1855.[56]
Mexico also contended with indigenous groups that controlled the territory that Mexico claimed in the north. For example, theComanche controlled ahuge territory in sparsely populated central and northern Texas.[57] Wanting to stabilize and develop that area — and as few people from central Mexico had chosen to resettle to this remote and hostile territory — the Mexican government encouragedAnglo-American immigration into present-day Texas, a region that bordered that United States. Mexico by law was a Catholic country; the Anglo-Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers from the southern United States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to Mexican law. In 1835, Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule in Mexico, suspending the 1824 constitution and promulgating theSeven Laws, which placed power in his hands. As a result, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: theRepublic of Texas, theRepublic of the Rio Grande and theRepublic of Yucatán.[58]: 129–137 The largest blow to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in theMexican–American War. Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern territory, sealed in the 1848Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Despite that disastrous loss, Santa Anna returned to the presidency yet again before being ousted and exiled in the LiberalRevolution of Ayutla.
Portrait of Liberal PresidentBenito Juárez. Known for his efforts to modernize the country, defend its sovereignty, and promote liberal reforms, especially during the mid-19th century.
The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's economic development. TheLiberal Reform attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated a newConstitution of 1857, separating Church and State, stripping the Church and the military of their special privileges (fueros); mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and secularizing education.[59] Conservatives revolted, touching offcivil war between rival Liberal and Conservative governments (1858–1861).
The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on the battlefield, but Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign intervention by the French, asking EmperorNapoleon III to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placedMaximilian Habsburg on thenewly established throne of Mexico, supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the French Army. The Liberal Republic underBenito Juárez was a government in internal exile, but with the end of the Civil War in the United States in April 1865, the Reunified U.S. government began aiding the Mexican Republic. Two years later, the French Army withdrew its support, but Maximilian remained in Mexico. Republican forces captured him and he was executed. The "Restored Republic" saw the return of Juárez, "the personification of the embattled republic,"[60] as president.
The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily but also discredited politically for their collaboration with the French invaders and Liberalism became synonymous with patriotism.[61] The Mexican Army that had its roots in the colonial royal army and then the army of the early republic was destroyed and new military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the French, most notablyPorfirio Díaz, a hero of theCinco de Mayo, who now sought civilian power and challenged Juárez on his re-election in 1867. Díaz then rebelled but was crushed by Juárez. Having won re-election, Juárez died in office in July 1872, and LiberalSebastián Lerdo de Tejada became president, declaring a "religion of the state" for the rule of law, peace, and order. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled against the civilian president, issuing thePlan of Tuxtepec. Díaz had more support and waged guerrilla warfare against Lerdo. On the verge of Díaz's victory on the battlefield, Lerdo fled from office into exile.[62]
After the turmoil in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of Liberal GeneralPorfirio Díaz (r.1876–1911) allowed Mexico to rapidly modernize in a period characterized as one of "order and progress". ThePorfiriato was characterized by economic stability and growth, significant foreign investment and influence, an expansion of therailroad network and telecommunications, and investments in the arts and sciences.[63] Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as thecientíficos ('scientists').[64] The most influentialcientífico was Secretary of FinanceJosé Yves Limantour.[65] The Porfirian regime was influenced bypositivism.[66] They rejected theology andidealism in favor of scientific methods being applied towards national development. An integral aspect of the liberal project was secular education. The Díaz government led a protractedconflict against the Yaqui that culminated with the forced relocation of thousands ofYaqui to Yucatán and Oaxaca. As the centennial of independence approached, Díaz gave aninterview where he said he was not going to run in the 1910 elections, when he would be 80. Political opposition had been suppressed and there were few avenues for a new generation of leaders. But his announcement set off a frenzy of political activity, including the unlikely candidacy of the scion of a rich landowning family,Francisco I. Madero. Madero won a surprising amount of political support when Díaz changed his mind and ran in the election, jailing Madero. The September centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of thePorfiriato. The Mexican Revolution starting in 1910 saw a decade of civil war, the "wind that swept Mexico."[67]
Francisco I. Madero, who challenged Díaz in the fraudulent 1910 election and was elected president when Díaz was forced to resign in May 1911
TheMexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational conflict.[68] It began with scattered uprisings against President Díaz after the fraudulent 1910 election, his resignation in May 1911, demobilization of rebel forces, an interim presidency of a member of the old guard and the democratic election of a rich, civilian landowner,Francisco I. Madero in fall 1911. InFebruary 1913, a military coup d'état overthrew Madero's government, with the support of the U.S., resulting in Madero's murder by agents ofFederal Army GeneralVictoriano Huerta. During the Revolution, the U.S. Republican administration ofTaft supported the Huerta coup against Madero, but when DemocratWoodrow Wilson was inaugurated as president in March 1913, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's regime and allowed arms sales to the Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered troops tooccupy the strategic port of Veracruz in 1914, which was lifted.[69] A coalition of anti-Huerta forces in the North, theConstitutional Army led byGovernor of CoahuilaVenustiano Carranza, and a peasant army in the South underEmiliano Zapata defeated the Federal Army in 1914, leaving only revolutionary forces.[70]
Following the revolutionaries' victory against Huerta, they sought to broker a peaceful political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico again into a civil war. Constitutionalist generalPancho Villa, commander of the Division of the North, broke with Carranza and allied with Zapata. Carranza's best generalAlvaro Obregón defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms, in theBattle of Celaya in 1915, and Villa's northern forces melted away. Carranza became the de facto head of Mexico, and the U.S. recognized his government[70] while Zapata's forces in the south reverted to guerrilla warfare. After Pancho Villa was defeated by revolutionary forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid intoColumbus, New Mexico, prompting the U.S. to send10,000 troops led by GeneralJohn J. Pershing in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as the U.S. entered World War I.[71] Although often viewed as an internal conflict, the revolution had significant international elements:[72] Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a codedtelegram in 1917 to incite war between the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain the territory it lost in the Mexican-American War[73] but Mexico remained neutral in the conflict.
In 1916, the winners of the Mexican revolution met at a constitutional convention to draft theConstitution of 1917, which was ratified in February 1917. The Constitution empowered the government to expropriate resources including land, gave rights to labor, and strengthened anticlerical provisions of the 1857 Constitution.[70] With amendments, it remains the governing document of Mexico. It is estimated that the revolutionary war killed 900,000 people out of Mexico's 15 million population at the time.[74][75] Consolidating power, President Carranza had peasant leader Emiliano Zapata assassinated in 1919. Carranza had gained the support of the peasantry during the Revolution, but once in power, he did little to institute land reform, which had motivated many to fight in the Revolution. Carranza returned some confiscated land to their original owners. President Carranza's best general, Obregón, served briefly in his administration but returned to his home state of Sonora to position himself to run in the 1920 presidential election. Since Carranza could not run for re-election, he chose a civilian to succeed him, intending to remain the power behind the presidency. Obregón and two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up thePlan of Agua Prieta, overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. GeneralAdolfo de la Huerta became interim president, followed by the election of GeneralÁlvaro Obregón.
Political consolidation and one-party rule (1920–2000)
The first quarter-century of the post-revolutionary period (1920–1946) was characterized by revolutionary generals serving asPresidents of Mexico, includingÁlvaro Obregón (1920–24),Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28),Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40), andManuel Avila Camacho (1940–46). The post-revolutionary project of the Mexican government sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in politics, and create organizations of interest groups. Workers, peasants, urban office workers, and even the army for a short period were incorporated as sectors of the single party that dominated Mexican politics from its founding in 1929. Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of organized labor. He gained recognition from the United States and took steps tosettle claims with companies and individuals that lost property during the Revolution. He imposed his fellow former Sonoran revolutionary general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an unsuccessful military revolt. As president, Calles provoked amajor conflict with theCatholic Church and Catholic guerrilla armies when he strictly enforced anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution which ended with an agreement. Although the constitution prohibited the reelection of the president, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to allow non-consecutive re-election; he won the 1928 elections but was assassinated by a Catholic activist, causing a political crisis of succession. Calles could not become president again, so he sought to set up a structure to manage presidential succession, founding theInstitutional Revolutionary Party, which went on to dominate Mexico for the rest of the 20th century.[76]
Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the key political figure during the period known as theMaximato (1929–1934), that ended during the presidency ofLázaro Cárdenas, who expelled Calles from the country and implemented many economic and social reforms. This included theMexican oil expropriation in March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil company known as theMexican Eagle Petroleum Company, which would result in the creation of the state-ownedPemex. Cárdenas's successor,Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946) was more moderate, and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly improved duringWorld War II, when Mexico was a significant ally. From 1946 the election ofMiguel Alemán, the first civilian president in the post-revolutionary period, Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic development, known as theMexican miracle, which was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and the increase of inequality between urban and rural areas.[77] TheGreen Revolution, a technological movement that led to a significant worldwide increase in crop production, began in theYaqui Valley of Sonora in the middle of the 20th century.[78]
With robust economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase it to the world by hosting the1968 Summer Olympics. The government poured huge resources into building new facilities, prompting political unrest among university students and others. Demonstrations in central Mexico City went on for weeks before the planned opening of the games, with the government ofGustavo Díaz Ordaz cracking down. The culmination was theTlatelolco Massacre,[79] which killed around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and perhaps as many as 800.[80] Although the economy continued to flourish for some,social inequality remained a factor of discontent. PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what is now referred to as theMexican Dirty War.[81]
In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI's complete political dominance. InBaja California, thePAN candidate was elected as governor. When De la Madrid choseCarlos Salinas de Gortari as the candidate for the PRI, and therefore a foregone presidential victor,Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of former PresidentLázaro Cárdenas, broke with the PRI and challenged Salinas in the 1988 elections. In 1988 there was massiveelectoral fraud, with results showing that Salinas had won the election by the narrowest percentage ever. There were massive protests in Mexico City over the stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988.[82] In 1990 the PRI was famously described byMario Vargas Llosa as the "perfect dictatorship", but by then there had been major challenges to the PRI's hegemony.[83][84][85]
Salinas embarked on a program ofneoliberal reforms that fixed the exchange rate of the peso, controlled inflation, opened Mexico to foreign investment, and began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join theirfree-trade agreement, which culminated in theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on 1 January 1994; the same day, theZapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) in Chiapas began armed peasant rebellion against the federal government, which captured a few towns but brought world attention to the situation in Mexico. The armed conflict was short-lived and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement againstneoliberalism andglobalization. In 1994, following the assassination of the PRI's presidential candidateLuis Donaldo Colosio, Salinas was succeeded by victorious PRI candidateErnesto Zedillo. Salinas left Zedillo's government to deal with theMexican peso crisis, requiring a $50 billionIMF bailout. Major macroeconomic reforms were started by Zedillo, and the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999.[86]
After twelve years, in the2012 presidential election, the PRI again won the presidency with the election ofEnrique Peña Nieto. However, he won with a plurality of around 38% and did not have a legislative majority.[89]
During the twenty-first century, Mexico has contended withhigh crime rates,bureaucratic corruption,narcotrafficking, and a stagnant economy. Many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized starting in the 1990s withneoliberal reforms, butPemex, the state-owned petroleum company is only slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses being issued.[90] In a push against government corruption, the ex-CEO of Pemex,Emilio Lozoya Austin, was arrested in 2020.[91]
After founding the new political partyMORENA, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (commonly known as AMLO) won the 2018 presidential election with over 50% of the vote. His political coalition, led by his left-wing party founded after the 2012 elections, included parties and politicians from across the political spectrum. The coalition also won a majority in both the upper and lower Congress chambers. His success is attributed to the country's opposing political forces exhausting their chances as well as AMLO's adoption of a moderate discourse with a focus on reconciliation.[92] The first confirmed case ofCOVID-19 in Mexico occurred on 28 February 2020. TheCOVID-19 vaccination in Mexico began in December 2020.
Claudia Sheinbaum, López Obrador's political successor, won the2024 presidential election in a landslide and upon taking office in October became the first woman to lead the country in Mexico's history.[93] She was sworn in as Mexico's president on 1 October 2024.[94]
Mexico has nine distinct regions:Baja California, the Pacific Coastal Lowlands, theMexican Plateau, theSierra Madre Oriental, theSierra Madre Occidental, theCordillera Neo-Volcánica, theGulf Coastal Plain, the Southern Highlands, and theYucatán Peninsula.[99] An important geologic feature of the Yucatán peninsula is theChicxulub crater, the scientific consensus is that theChicxulub impactor was responsible for theCretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Although Mexico is large (a little over 2,000 mi (3,219 km) in length from its farthest land points), much of its land mass is incompatible with agriculture due to aridity, soil, or terrain. In 2018, an estimated 54.9% of land is agricultural; 11.8% is arable; 1.4% is in permanent crops; 41.7% is permanent pasture; and 33.3% is forest.[98] Mexico is irrigated by several rivers, with the longest being theRio Grande, which serves as a natural eastern border with the United States.[100] TheUsumacinta River in turn, serves as a natural southern border between Mexico and Guatemala.[101]
The climate of Mexico is varied due to the country's size and topography.Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the Tropic of Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are fairly constant year-round and vary solely as a function of elevation. This gives Mexico one of the world's most diverse weather systems. Maritime air masses bring seasonal precipitation from May until August. Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with only sporadic rainfall, while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7 in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in the north likeMonterrey,Hermosillo, andMexicali experience temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) or more in summer. In theSonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C (122 °F) or more.[102]
There are 7 major climate types in Mexico[103] with warm sub-humid climate being coastal up to 900 meters found mostly in the southern region of Mexico; dry and desertic climates being found in the northern half of the country; temperate humid and sub-humid being found mostly on pastures at an elevation of 1,800 meters and higher in central Mexico and cold climate usually found at an elevation of 3,500 meters and beyond. Most of the country's territory has a temperate to dry climate.[103] Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations up to 1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as theYucatán Peninsula), have a yearly median temperature between 24 and 28 °C (75.2 and 82.4 °F). Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter and summer median temperatures. The Pacific coast is subject to natural hazards such as tsunamis and both Mexican coasts with the exception of the south coast of theBay of Campeche and northern Baja California are vulnerable to serioushurricanes during the summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the Tropic of Cancer are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moderate conditions during the winter.[102]
Flash flood in Mexico
Climate change in Mexico is causing widespread impacts including rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, intensified hurricanes, and sea-level rise in coastal regions.[104] These changes pose threats to water resources and agriculture (particularly for rural and smallholder farmers),[105][106] and affect crops including maize and coffee, contributing to economic insecurity.[107][106]Climate change is impacting Mexican's health,[108] exacerbating human migration.[109][110][111] and increasingextinction risk for Mexico'sbiodiversity by as much as ten times forendemic species.[112]
Mexico ranks fourth[113] in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17megadiverse countries. With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home of 10–12% of the world's biodiversity.[114] Mexico ranks first in biodiversity inreptiles with 707 known species,second in mammals with 438 species, fourth inamphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species.[115] Mexico is also considered the second country in the world inecosystems and fourth in overall species.[116] About 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislation.[116] In 2002[update], Mexico had the second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second only to Brazil.[117] It had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out of 172 countries.[118] According to SGI there isDeforestation andsoil erosion especially in rural areas of Mexico. In the 2022 report it was noted environmental protection laws have improved in major cities but remain unenforced or unregulated in rural regions.[119]
In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometers (65,637 sq mi) are considered "Protected Natural Areas". These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67national parks, 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic, scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins, and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse species).[114] Plants indigenous to Mexico are grown in many parts of the world and integrated into their national cuisines. Some of Mexico's nativeculinary ingredients include maize, tomato, beans, squash, chocolate,vanilla,avocado,guava,chayote,epazote,camote,jícama,nopal,zucchini,tejocote,huitlacoche,sapote,mamey sapote, and a great variety ofchiles, such as thehabanero and thejalapeño. Most of these names come from the indigenous language ofNahuatl.Tequila, the distilled alcoholic drink made from cultivatedagave cacti is a major industry. Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site ofbioprospecting by international research bodies.[120] The first highly successful instance was the discovery in 1947 of the tuber "Barbasco" (Dioscorea composita) which has a high content ofdiosgenin, revolutionizing the production ofsynthetic hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention ofcombined oral contraceptive pills.[121]
The United Mexican States are afederation whose government isrepresentative, democratic, andrepublican based on a presidential system according to the1917 Constitution. The Constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union, the state governments, and the municipal governments.
The federallegislature is thebicameralCongress of the Union, composed of theSenate of the Republic and theChamber of Deputies. The Congress makesfederal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments.[122] The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by a system ofparallel voting that includes plurality andproportional representation.[123] The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected byplurality vote insingle-member districts (thefederal electoral districts) and 200 are elected by proportional representation withclosed party lists[123] for which the country is divided into five electoral constituencies.[123] The Senate comprises 128 senators: 64 (two for each state and two for Mexico City) are elected by plurality vote in pairs, 32 are the first minority or first-runner-up (one for each state and one for Mexico City), and 32 are elected by proportional representation from national closed party lists.[123]
The Mexican Armed Forces are administered by theSecretariat of National Defense (Secretaria de Defensa Nacional, SEDENA). There are two branches: theMexican Army (which includes theMexican Air Force) andMexican Navy. The National Guard, which was formed in 2019 from the disbanded Federal Police and military police of the Army and Navy, functions as agendarme; while responsible for law enforcement, it is placed under military command.[143][144] Figures vary, but as of 2024, there are approximately 220,000 armed forces personnel: 160,000 Army; 10,000 Air Force; and 50,000 Navy, including about 20,000 marines. The National Guard has roughly 110,000 personnel. Military expenditures are a small fraction of GDP, at around 0.6% as of 2023.[145]
The Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for the design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics; military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems; and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies. Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in thewar on drugs, increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft,helicopters, digital war-fighting technologies,[146] urban warfare equipment and rapid troop transport.[147] Mexico has the capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with theTreaty of Tlatelolco in 1968, pledging to use its nuclear technology only for peaceful purposes.[148] Mexico signed the UN treaty on theProhibition of Nuclear Weapons.[149]
Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts,[150]with the exception of World War II. However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of theConstitution to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations inpeacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it.[151]
TheMexican Federal Police was dissolved in 2019 by a constitutional amendment during the administration of President López Obrador, being replaced by theNational Guard, a nationalgendarmerie formed from units and assets of the Federal Police, Military Police, and Naval Police.[152] As of 2022, the National Guard numbered 110,000 personnel. López Obrador had increasingly used military forces for domestic law enforcement, particularly against drug cartels.[153] There have been serious abuses of power reported in security operations in the southern part of the country and in indigenous communities and poor urban neighborhoods. The National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this trend, engaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its powers to issue public condemnations to the officials who ignore its recommendations.[154] Most Mexicans have low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens.[155] There have been public demonstrations of outrage against what is considered a culture ofimpunity.[156]
Mexico has fully recognisedsame-sex marriage since 2022,[157] and anti-discrimination laws regarding sexual orientation have existed in the nation since 2003.[158] However, hate crimes towards theLGBT community remain an issue in Mexico.[159][160] Other crime and human rights violations in Mexico have been criticized, including enforced disappearances (kidnappings), abuses against migrants, extrajudicial killings, gender-based violence, especiallyfemicide, and attacks on journalists and human rights advocates.[161] A 2020 report by theBBC gives statistics on crime in Mexico, with 10.7 million households with at least one victim of crime.[162] As of May 2022, 100,000 people are officially listed as missing, most since 2007 when President Calderón attempted to stop the drug cartels.[163] Drug cartels remain a major issue in Mexico, with a proliferation of smaller cartels when larger ones are broken up and increasingly the use of more sophisticated military equipment and tactics.[164][165]
Mexico's drug war, ongoing since 2006, has left over 120,000 dead and perhaps another 37,000 missing.[166] Mexico'sNational Geography and Statistics Institute estimated that in 2014, one-fifth of Mexicans were victims of some sort of crime.[167] Themass kidnapping of 43 students inIguala on 26 September 2014 triggered nationwide protests against the government's weak response to the disappearances and widespread corruption that gives free rein to criminal organizations.[168] More than 100 journalists andmedia workers have been killed or disappeared since 2000, and most of these crimes remained unsolved, improperly investigated, and with few perpetrators arrested and convicted.[169][170]
The boundaries and constituent units of Mexico evolved from its colonial-era origins. Central America peacefully separated from Mexico after independence in 1821. Yucatán was briefly an independent republic. Texas separated in theTexas Revolution and when it was annexed to the U.S. in 1845, it set the stage for theMexican–American War and major territorial loss to the U.S. The sale of northern territory known in the U.S. as theGadsden Purchase was the last loss of Mexican territory. The United Mexican States are a federation of 31 free and sovereign states, which form a union that exercises a degree of jurisdiction overMexico City.[171] Each state has its constitution,congress, and a judiciary, and its citizens elect bydirect voting agovernor for a six-year term, and representatives to their respective unicameral state congresses for three-year terms.[122]Mexico City is a special political division that belongs to the federation as a whole and not to a particular state.[171] Formerly known as the Federal District, its autonomy was previously limited relative to that of the states.[122] It dropped this designation in 2016 and is in the process of achieving greater political autonomy by becoming a federal entity withits constitution and congress.[172] The states are divided intomunicipalities, the smallest administrative political entity in the country, governed by amayor or municipal president (presidente municipal), elected by its residents by plurality.[122]
As of April 2024, Mexico has the12th largest nominal GDP (US$1.848 trillion), the12th largest bypurchasing power parity (US$3.303 trillion) and a GDP in PPP per capita of US$24,971.[173] The World Bank reported in 2023 that the country'sgross national income in market exchange rates was the second highest in Latin America afterBrazil at US$1,744,711.4 million.[174] Mexico is established as an upper-middle-income country. After the slowdown of 2001 the country recovered and grew 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006,[175] even though it is considered to be well below Mexico's potential growth.[176] By 2050, Mexico could potentially become the world's fifth or seventh-largest economy.[177][178]
The electronics industry of Mexico has grown enormously within the last decade. Mexico has the sixth largest electronics industry in the world afterChina, the United States,Japan,South Korea, andTaiwan. Mexico is the second-largest exporter of electronics to the United States where it exported $71.4 billion worth of electronics in 2011. The Mexican electronics exports grew 73% between 2002 and 2012. The manufactured value-added sector, which electronics is part of, accounted for 18% of Mexico's GDP.[179]
Mexico produces the most automobiles of any North American nation.[180] The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research and development activities.[181] The "Big Three" (General Motors,Ford andChrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, whileVolkswagen andNissan built their plants in the 1960s.[182] InPuebla alone, 70 industrial part-makers cluster around Volkswagen.[181] In the 2010s expansion of the sector was surging. In September 2016Kia opened a $1 billion factory inNuevo León,[183] with Audi also opening an assembling plant in Puebla the same year.[184]BMW,Mercedes-Benz andNissan currently have plants in construction.[185] The domestic car industry is represented byDINA S.A., which has built buses and trucks since 1962,[186] and the newMastretta company that builds the high-performanceMastretta MXT sports car.[187] In 2006, trade with the United States and Canada accounted for almost 50% of Mexico's exports and 45% of its imports.[12]
During the first three quarters of 2010, the United States had a $46.0 billiontrade deficit with Mexico.[188] In August 2010 Mexico surpassed France to become the 9th largest holder of US debt.[189] The remittances from Mexican citizens working in the United States are significant; after dipping during the 2008Great Recession and again duringCOVID-19 pandemic in 2021 they are topping other sources of foreign income.[190][191] Remittances are directed to Mexico by direct links from a U.S. government banking program.[192]
Although multiple international organizations coincide and classify Mexico as an upper middle income country, or a middle class country,[193][194] Mexico'sNational Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL), which is the organization in charge to measure the country's poverty reports that a huge percentage of Mexico's population lives in poverty. According to said council, from 2006 to 2010 (the year on which the CONEVAL published its first nationwide report of poverty) the portion of Mexicans who live in poverty rose from 18%–19%[195] to 46% (52 million people).[196] Despite this situation, CONEVAL reported in 2023 that the country's poverty rate has been decreasing in recent years, as the organization registered, within the period between 2018 and 2022, a 5.6% decrease, from 41.9% to 36.3% (from 51.9 million to 46.8 million people), according to itsMultidimensional Poverty Index, though theextreme poverty rate rose by 0.1% (410 thousand people) within the same period, remaining at 7.1% (9.1 million people), and the number of people lacking access to healthcare services has significantly increased, from 16.2% to 39.1% (50.4 million people),[197][198] though some specialists have expressed a degree of doubt regarding the accuracy of these rates.[199] According to theOECD's own poverty line (defined as the percentage of a country's population who earns 60%[200] or less of the national median income) 20% of Mexico's population lived in a situation of poverty in 2019.[201]
Among theOECD countries, Mexico has the second-highest degree of economic disparity between the extremely poor and extremely rich, after Chile – although it has been falling over the last decade, being one of few countries in which this is the case.[202] The bottom ten percent in the income hierarchy disposes of 1.36% of the country's resources, whereas the upper ten percent dispose of almost 36%. The OECD also notes that Mexico's budgeted expenses for poverty alleviation and social development are only about a third of the OECD average.[203] This is also reflected by the fact that infant mortality in Mexico is three times higher than the average among OECD nations whereas its literacy levels are in the median range of OECD nations. Nevertheless, according to aGoldman Sachs report published in 2007, by 2050 Mexico will have the 5th largest economy in the world.[204] According to a 2008 UN report the average income in a typical urbanized area of Mexico was $26,654, while the average income in rural areas just miles away was only $8,403.[205] Daily minimum wages are set annually. The daily minimum wage will be $248.93Mexican pesos (US$13.24) in 2024 ($375 in the country's northern border), making it comparable to the minimum wages of countries likeUruguay,Chile andEcuador. The minimum wage has rapidly increased throughout the last few years, as it was set at 88.15 pesos in 2018.[206]
The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated byTelmex (Teléfonos de México), previously a government monopoly privatized in 1990. By 2006, Telmex had expanded its operations to Colombia, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and the United States. Other players in the domestic industry areAxtel, Maxcom, Alestra, Marcatel, AT&T Mexico.[207] Because of Mexicanorography, providing a landline telephone service at remote mountainous areas is expensive, and the penetration of line-phones per capita is low compared to other Latin American countries, at 51.8% percent; however, 81.2% of Mexican households have an internet connection and 81.4% of Mexicans over the age of 6 have a mobile phone.[208] Mobile telephony has the advantage of reaching all areas at a lower cost, and the total number of mobile lines is almost two times that of landlines, with an estimation of 97.2 million lines.[208] The telecommunication industry is regulated by the government throughCofetel (Comisión Federal de Telecomunicaciones).
The Mexican satellite system is domestic and operates 120 earth stations. There is also extensive microwave radio relay network and considerable use of fiber-optic and coaxial cable.[209] Mexican satellites are operated bySatélites Mexicanos (Satmex), a private company, leader in Latin America and servicing both North and South America.[210] It offers broadcast, telephone, and telecommunication services to 37 countries in the Americas, from Canada toArgentina. Through business partnerships Satmex provides high-speed connectivity to ISPs and Digital Broadcast Services.[211] Satmex maintains its satellite fleet with most of the fleet being designed and built in Mexico. Major players in the broadcasting industry areTelevisa, the largest Mexican media company in the Spanish-speaking world,[212]TV Azteca andImagen Televisión.
Energy production in Mexico is managed by the state-owned companiesFederal Commission of Electricity andPemex. Pemex, the public company in charge of exploration, extraction, transportation, and marketing of crude oil and natural gas, as well as the refining and distribution of petroleum products and petrochemicals, is one of the largest companies in the world by revenue, making US$86 billion in sales a year.[213][214][215] Mexico is the sixth-largest oil producer in the world, with 3.7 million barrels per day.[216] In 1980 oil exports accounted for 61.6% of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3%.[181] Mexico owns 7oil refineries on its territory, with the newest one being built in 2022[217] andanother refinery within the United States.[218] Mexico has 60 hydroelectric power plants which generate 12% of the country's electricity[219] with the largest being the 2,400 MWManuel Moreno Torres Dam on theGrijalva River in Chicoasén,Chiapas. This is the world's fourth most productive hydroelectric plant.[220]
Mexico is the country with the world's third-largestsolar power potential.[221] The country's gross solar potential is estimated at 5kWh/m2 daily, which corresponds to 50 times the national electricity generation.[222] Currently, there is over 1 million square meters ofsolar thermal panels[223] installed in Mexico, while in 2005 there were only 115,000 square meters ofsolar PV (photo-voltaic) panels.[223] The projectSEGH-CFE 1 located in Puerto Libertad, Sonora in the Northwest of Mexico was completed in December 2018 and has a capacity of 46.8 MW from an array of 187,200 solar panels,[224] all of its generated electricity is sold directly to the CFE and absorbed into the utility's transmission system for distribution throughout their existing network.[225] The Villanueva solar park in Coahuila which opened in 2019, is the largest solar power plant in the Americas with a capacity of 828 MW.[226] Mexico does have onenuclear power plant, theLaguna Verde Nuclear Power Station located in the state of Veracruz[227] and numerous wind farms,[228] with thelargest wind farm in Latin America being located in the state of Oaxaca.[229]
Although Mexico has significantly increased its renewable electricity generation from wind and solar sources, it is still dependent onfossil fuels for the majority of its energy.[230] In 2023 Mexico was in the top 15 highestgreenhouse gas emitters, contributing over 5 million tonnes, or 1.4% of the global total.[231] Mexico has committed to reducinggreenhouse gas emissions by 35% by 2030, with an increased target of 40% conditional upon external support. The country also aims to cutblack carbon emissions by 51% unconditionally and 70% with additional support by 2030 and has committed tonet zero by 2050.[232]
TheNational Autonomous University of Mexico was officially established in 1910,[233] and the university became one of the most important institutes of higher learning in Mexico.[234] UNAM provides world class education in science, medicine, and engineering.[235] Many scientific institutes and new institutes of higher learning, such asNational Polytechnic Institute (founded in 1936),[236] were established during the first half of the 20th century. Most of the new research institutes were created within UNAM. Twelve institutes were integrated into UNAM from 1929 to 1973.[237] In 1959, theMexican Academy of Sciences was created to coordinate scientific efforts between academics.
In 1995, the Mexican chemistMario J. Molina shared theNobel Prize in Chemistry withPaul J. Crutzen andF. Sherwood Rowland for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone.[238] Molina, an alumnus of UNAM, became the first Mexican citizen to win the Nobel Prize in science.[239]
In recent years, the largest scientific project being developed in Mexico was the construction of theLarge Millimeter Telescope (Gran Telescopio Milimétrico, GMT), the world's largest and most sensitive single-aperture telescope in its frequency range.[240] It was designed to observe regions of space obscured by stellar dust. Mexico was ranked 56th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[241]
As of 2017, Mexico was the 6th most visited country in the world and had the 15th highest income from tourism in the world which is also the highest in Latin America.[242] The vast majority of tourists come to Mexico from the United States and Canada followed by Europe and Asia. A smaller number also come from other Latin American countries.[243] In the 2017Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report, Mexico was ranked 22nd in the world, which was 3rd in the Americas.[244]
Despite its difficult topography, Mexico's roadway is extensive and most areas in the country are covered. The roadway network in Mexico has an extent of 366,095 km (227,481 mi),[248] of which 116,802 km (72,577 mi) are paved,[249] making it9th largest of any country.[250] Of these, 10,474 km (6,508 mi) are multi-laneexpressways: 9,544 km (5,930 mi) are four-lane highways and the rest have 6 or more lanes.[249]
Starting in the late nineteenth century, Mexico was one of the first Latin American countries to promote railway development,[155] and the network covers 30,952 km (19,233 mi). TheSecretary of Communications and Transport of Mexico proposed a high-speed rail link that will transport its passengers fromMexico City toGuadalajara,Jalisco.[251][252] The train, which will travel at 300 kilometers per hour (190 miles per hour),[253] will allow passengers to travel from Mexico City to Guadalajara in just 2 hours.[253] The whole project was projected to cost 240 billionpesos, or about 25 billion US$[251] and is being paid for jointly by the Mexican government and the local private sector including one of the wealthiest men in the world, Mexico's billionaire business tycoonCarlos Slim.[254] The federal government has also been funding the construction of aninter city railway line connecting cities such asCozumel,Mérida,Chichen Itza, Cancún andPalenque;[255]another inter city train connecting the city of Toluca and Mexico City[256] and has restored theInteroceanic train corridor, which connects the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.[257]
Mexico has 233 airports with paved runways; of these, 10 carry 72% of national cargo and 97% of international cargo.[258] TheMexico City International Airport remains the busiest in Latin America and the 36th busiest in the world[259] transporting 45 million passengers a year.[260] Two additional airports operate simultaneously to help relieve congestion from the Mexico City International Airport: theToluca International Airport and theFelipe Ángeles International Airport.[261]
According to Mexico'sNational Geography and Statistics Institute, the country's estimated population in 2022 was of 129,150,971 people.[262] Since at least the 1970s, Mexico has been the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.[263]
Mexico's population is highly diverse, but research on Mexican ethnicity has felt the impact of nationalist discourses on identity.[267][268][269] Since the 1930s, the Mexican government has promoted the view that all Mexicans are part of theMestizo community, within which they are distinguished only by residence in or outside of anindigenous community, degree of fluency in an indigenous language, and degree of adherence to indigenous customs.[270][271] While Mestizos are a prominent ethnic group in contemporary Mexico, the subjective and ever-changing definition of this category means that precise estimates are impossible.[272][273]
During the colonial era, Spanish administrators created a fluid and complicatedcaste system which placed Spaniards and Europeans over other groups, such as indigenous people and enslaved people and their descendants, as well as light-skinned people born in Mexico. This caste system's use ofphenotypes offered some degree of social mobility, asAfro-Mexicans and indigenous people sometimesassimilated to themestizo (mixed) caste.[274]: 74–75
After independence, Mexico abandoned the cast system and identified mestizo as part of a national identity. By 1822, race had been omitted from public documents. This and other changes in policy were intended to ensure equality and also to eliminate racial and cultural diversity.[274]: 75 During the Porfiriato, Mexico began an active campaign to "whiten" the population by encouraging emigration from Europe and by expelling Afrodescendants and Asians.[274]: 75 (See alsoEugenics in Mexico). Social stratification andracism in Mexico have remained in the modern era. Although phenotype is not as important as culture, European features and lighter skin tone are favored by middle- and upper-class groups.[274]: 75
Beginning in the 1930s, drawing on the work of anthropologistGonzalo Aguirre Beltrán, there was a cultural and academic re-evaluation of the role of Afro-Mexicans in the country, dispelling the misconception that they had assimilated into the mestizo.[274]: 77 According to a study in 2000, Afrodescendants in Mexico are more likely to describe themselves asmoreno (brown) than Afro-Mexican, asmoreno is part of the mestizo identity.[274]: 77 [275] According to the 2020 census, Afro-Mexicans comprised 2% of Mexico's population.[1]
During and following the Mexican Revolution, some active efforts were made to decrease social and economic inequality among indigenous Mexicans.[274]: 75–76 In 1992,Article 2 of the Constitution of Mexico was amended to define Mexico as a pluricultural country and specifically to emphasize the role of indigenous Mexicans. This new legal framework preceded theZapatista Army of National Liberation's push against the mestizaje ideology. This led to the 1996San Andrés Accords granting autonomy, recognition, and rights to the indigenous population of Mexico.[274]: 78 According to Mexico's 2020 census, 6.1% of Mexico's population speaks an Indigenous language and 19.4% of the population identifies as indigenous.[1]
Spanish is thede facto national language spoken by the vast majority of the population, making Mexico the world's most populousHispanophone country.[282][263]Mexican Spanish refers to thevarieties of the language spoken in the country, which differs from one region to another in sound, structure, and vocabulary.[283]
Map for the year 2000 of the indigenous languages of Mexico having more than 100,000 speakers
The federal government officially recognizessixty-eight linguistic groups and 364 varieties of indigenous languages.[284] It is estimated that around 8.3 million citizens speak these languages,[285] withNahuatl being the most widely spoken by more than 1.7 million, followed byYucatec Maya used daily by nearly 850,000 people.Tzeltal andTzotzil, two otherMayan languages, are spoken by around half a million people each, primarily in the southern state ofChiapas.[285]Mixtec andZapotec, with an estimated 500,000 native speakers each, are two other prominent language groups.[285] Since its creation in March 2003, theNational Indigenous Languages Institute has been in charge of promoting and protecting the use of the country's indigenous languages, through theGeneral Law of Indigenous Peoples' Linguistic Rights, which recognizes themde jure as "national languages" with status equal to that of Spanish.[286] That notwithstanding, in practice, indigenous peoples often face discrimination and do not have full access to public services such as education and healthcare, or to the justice system, as Spanish is the prevailing language.[287]
Aside from indigenous languages, there are several minority languages spoken in Mexico due to international migration such asLow German by the 80,000-strongMennonite population, primarily settled in the northern states, fueled by the tolerance of the federal government towards this community by allowing them to set their educational system compatible with their customs and traditions.[288] TheChipilo dialect, a variance of theVenetian language, is spoken in the town ofChipilo, located in the central state ofPuebla, by around 2,500 people, mainly descendants of Venetians that migrated to the area in the late 19th century.[289]English is the most commonly taught foreign language in Mexico. It is estimated that nearly 24 million, or around a fifth of the population, study the language through public schools, private institutions, or self-access channels;[290] however, a high level of English proficiency is limited to only 5% of the population.[291]French is the second most widely taught foreign language, as every year between 200,000 and 250,000 Mexican students enroll in French language courses.[292][293][294]
As of 2019, it is estimated that 11.7 million Mexicans live outside Mexico, in addition to 13.5 million born abroad and another 12 million descendants; the vast majority of this combined population (98–99%) are in the U.S.[295] The largest Mexican communities outside Mexico are in the metropolitan areas ofLos Angeles,Chicago,Houston andDallas–Fort Worth.[296] Between 1965 and 2015, more than 16 million Mexicans migrated to the United States alone—by far the top destination for both temporary and permanent migration—representing one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.[297] As a result of these major migration flows in recent decades, an estimated 37.2 million U.S. residents, or 11.2% of the country's population, identified as being of full or partial Mexican ancestry.[298][299]
Among the remaining 2% of Mexican expatriates not residing in the U.S., the most popular destinations areCanada (86,780), primarily the provinces ofOntario andQuebec,[300] followed bySpain andGermany; the latter two countries account for two-thirds of all Mexicans living in Europe.[301] It is estimated that 69,000 Mexicans live in Latin America, led byGuatemala (18,870) followed byBolivia (10,610),Chile (10,560), andPanama (5,000).[301]
Historically, and relative to other countries in the Western Hemisphere, Mexico has not been a destination of mass migration.[302] As of 2020, an estimated 1.2 million foreigners settled in Mexico,[303] up from nearly 1 million in 2010.[304] In 2021, Mexico officially received 68,000 new immigrants, a 16% increase from the prior year;[305] the overall number of migrants, including those unauthorized to enter or stay in the country, may be higher than official figures.[302] The vast majority of migrants in Mexico come from the United States (900,000), making Mexico the top destination forU.S. citizens abroad.[306] The second largest group comes from neighboringGuatemala (54,500), followed bySpain (27,600).[303] Other major sources of migration are fellow Latin American countries, which includeColombia (20,600),Argentina (19,200) andCuba (18,100).[303] Communities descended from theLebanese diaspora andGerman-born Mennonites have had an outsized impact in the country's culture, particularly in its cuisine and traditional music.[307][308]
In 2020 there were 48 metropolitan areas in Mexico, in which close to 53% of the country's population lives.[309] The most populous metropolitan area in Mexico is theMetropolitan Area of the Valley of Mexico, orGreater Mexico City, which in 2020 had a population of 21.8 million, or around 18% of the nation's population. The next four largest metropolitan areas in Mexico areGreater Monterrey (5.3 million),Greater Guadalajara (5.2 million),Greater Puebla (3.2 million) andGreater Toluca (2.3 million).[310] Urban areas contain 76.81% of Mexico's total population.[311]
The 97,864,218[1] Catholics of Mexico constitute in absolute terms the second largest Catholic community in the world, afterBrazil's.[314] 47% percent of them attend church services weekly.[315] ThePentecostalism is the second Christian creed in Mexico, with more than 1.3 million adherents. Migratory phenomena have led to the spread of different aspects of Christianity, including branchesProtestants,Eastern Catholic Churches andEastern Orthodox Church.[316]
According to the 2020 census, there are 58,876 Jews in Mexico.[1] The presence ofJews in Mexico dates back to the 16th century when Spaniards arrived to the Americas, however the modern Jewish Community began to be formed in the late 19th and early 20th century when Jews from Europe and the Ottoman Empire immigrated to the country due to instability and anti-semitism.[317]Islam in Mexico (with 7,982 members) is practiced mostly byArab Mexicans.[1] In the 2020 census 36,764 Mexicans reported belonging to a spiritualist religion,[1] a category which includes a tinyBuddhist population and about 74,000 people reported to practice religions with "ethnic roots" (religions mostly African and indigenous origins).[1]
There is often asyncretism betweenshamanism and Catholic traditions. Another religion of popular syncretism in Mexico (especially in recent years) is theSantería, mainly due to the large number of Cubans who settled in the territory after theCuban Revolution.[318] One of the most exemplary cases of popular religiosity is the cult ofHoly Dead (Santa Muerte). Other examples are the representations of thePassion of Christ and the celebration ofDay of the Dead, which take place within the framework of the Catholic Christian imaginary, but under a very particular reinterpretation.[319]
In the 1930s, Mexico made a commitment torural health care, mandating that mostly urban medical students receive training in it and to make them agents of the state to assess marginal areas.[320] Since the early 1990s, Mexico entered a transitional stage in the health of its population and some indicators such as mortality patterns are identical to those found in highly developed countries like Germany or Japan.[321] Mexico's medical infrastructure is highly rated for the most part and is usually excellent in major cities,[322][323] but rural communities still lack equipment for advanced medical procedures, forcing patients in those locations to travel to the closest urban areas to get specialized medical care.[155]Social determinants of health can be used to evaluate the state of health in Mexico.
State-funded institutions such asMexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) and theInstitute for Social Security and Services for State Workers (ISSSTE) play a major role in health and social security. Private health services are also very important and account for 13% of all medical units in the country.[324] Medical training is done mostly at public universities with many specializations done in vocational or internship settings. Some public universities in Mexico, such as theUniversity of Guadalajara, have signed agreements with the U.S. to receive and train American students in medicine. Health care costs in private institutions and prescription drugs in Mexico are on average lower than that of its North American economic partners.[322]
As of 2020, the literacy rate in Mexico is 95.25%, a slight increase from 94.86% in 2018, and significantly higher than 82.99% in 1980.[325] Literacy between males and females is relatively equal.
TheCry of Dolores. Every year on the eve of Independence Day, the President of Mexico re-enacts the cry from the balcony of the National Palace in Mexico City,
Mexican culture reflects along and complex history ofinteractions between various peoples through migration, conquest, and trade. Three centuries of Spanish rule resulted in the blending ofSpanish culture with those of different indigenous groups. Efforts toassimilate the native population into Christian European culture during the colonial era were only partially successful, with many pre-Columbian customs, traditions, and norms persisting regionally (particularly in rural areas) or becomingsyncretized; conversely, many Spanish settlers integrated into local communities throughacculturation or intermarriage. However, a high degree of stratification along the lines of class, ethnicity, and race perpetuated distinct subcultures.[330]
The Porfirian era (el Porfiriato) (1876–1911), which brought relative peace after four decades of civil unrest and war, saw the development of philosophy and art, often with government support. Since that time, as accentuated during theMexican Revolution, cultural identity has had its foundation inmestizaje: the blending of different races and cultures, of which the indigenous (i.e. Amerindian) element is the core.[citation needed] In light of the various ethnicities that formed the Mexican people,José Vasconcelos inLa Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race) (1925) defined Mexico and Latin America to be the melting pot of all races (thus extending the definition of themestizo) not only biologically but culturally as well.[331] Other Mexican intellectuals grappled with the idea ofLo Mexicano, which seeks "to discover the national ethos of Mexican culture."[332]Nobel laureateOctavio Paz explores the notion of a Mexican national character inThe Labyrinth of Solitude.
Painting is one of the oldest arts in Mexico. Cave painting in Mexican territory is about 7500 years old and has been found in the caves of theBaja California Peninsula.[333] Pre-Columbian Mexican art is present in buildings and caves, inAztec codices, inceramics, in garments, etc.; examples of this are theMaya mural paintings ofBonampak or the murals found inTeotihuacán,Cacaxtla andMonte Albán.[36] Mural painting with Christian religious themes had an important flowering during the 16th century, early colonial era in newly constructed churches and monasteries. Examples can be found inAcolman,Actopan,Huejotzingo,Tecamachalco andZinacantepec.[334]
As with most art during the early modern era in the West, colonial-era Mexican art was religious during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Starting in the late seventeenth century, and, most prominently in the eighteenth century, secular portraits and images of racial types, so-calledcasta painting appeared.[335] Important painters of the late colonial period wereJuan Correa,Cristóbal de Villalpando andMiguel Cabrera. In early post-independence Mexico, nineteenth-century painting had a marked romantic influence; landscapes and portraits were the greatest expressions of this era.Hermenegildo Bustos is one of the most appreciated painters of thehistoriography of Mexican art. Other painters includeSantiago Rebull,Félix Parra,Eugenio Landesio, and his noted pupil, the landscape artistJosé María Velasco.[336]
In the 20th century artists such asDiego Rivera,David Alfaro Siqueiros, andJosé Clemente Orozco, the so-called "Big Three" ofMexican muralism achieved worldwide recognition. They were commissioned by the Mexican government to paint large-scale historical murals on the walls of public buildings, which helped shape popular perceptions of the Mexican Revolution and Mexican cultural identity.[337]Frida Kahlo's largely personal portraiture is considered by many as the most important historical work by a female artist.[338]
The architecture ofMesoamerican civilizations evolved in style from simple to complex. Teotihuacan, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, is one of the foremost examples of ancient pyramid construction. The cities of the Maya stand out to modern architects as examples of integration between large urban centers (with elaborate stone construction) and a thick jungle, generally with a complex network of roads. Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica also saw distinctive architectural influences from theOlmec, thePuuc andoasiamerican peoples.[36]
Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts), with numerous murals, artworks and a major performance space
With the arrival of the Spanish, architectural theories of theGreco-Latin order withArab influences were introduced. In the first few decades of Spanish presence in the continent, the high level of Christian missionary activity, especially by mendicant orders like the Dominicans or Franciscans, meant the construction of manymonasteries, often with Romanesque, Gothic or Mudéjar elements. In addition, the interaction between Spaniards and Indigenous people gave rise to artistic styles such as thetequitqui (from the Nahuatl: worker or builder). Years later,Baroque andMannerist styles prevailed in large cathedrals and civil buildings, while in rural areas,haciendas or stately estates withMozarabic tendencies were built.[334] In the 19th century, the neoclassical movement arose as the country gained independence and sought to establish itself as a republic. A famous example is theHospicio Cabañas, an orphanage and hospital complex completed in 1829. Theart nouveau, and theart deco were styles introduced into the design of thePalacio de Bellas Artes to mark the identity of the Mexican nation with Greek-Roman and pre-Columbian symbols.[345]
Juan O'Gorman was one of the first environmental architects in modern Mexico to develop the "organic" theory, trying to integrate buildings onto the landscape within the same approaches ofFrank Lloyd Wright.[347] In the search for a new architecture that does not resemble the styles of the past, it achieves a joint manifestation with the mural painting and thelandscaping.Luis Barragán combined the shape of the space with forms of rural vernacular architecture of Mexico and Mediterranean countries (Spain-Morocco), integrating color that handles light and shade in different tones and opens a look at the internationalminimalism. He won the 1980Pritzker Prize, the highest award in architecture.[348]
Mole sauce, which has dozens of varieties across the Republic, is seen as a symbol ofMexicanidad[349] and is considered Mexico's national dish.[349]
The origin of the current Mexican cuisine was established during the Spanish colonial era, a mixture of the foods ofSpain with native indigenous ingredients.[350] Foods indigenous to Mexico includecorn,pepper vegetables,calabazas,avocados,sweet potato,turkey, manybeans, and other fruits and spices. Similarly, some cooking techniques used today are inherited from pre-Columbian peoples, such as thenixtamalization of corn, the cooking of food in ovens at ground level, grinding inmolcajete andmetate. With the Spaniards came the pork, beef and chicken meats;peppercorn, sugar, milk and all its derivatives, wheat and rice, citrus fruits and another constellation of ingredients that are part of the daily diet of Mexicans.
In 2005, Mexico presented the candidature of its gastronomy forWorld Heritage Site of UNESCO, the first time a country had presented its gastronomic tradition for this purpose.[351] The result was negative, because the committee did not place the proper emphasis on the importance ofcorn in Mexican cuisine.[352] On 16 November 2010 Mexican gastronomy was recognized asIntangible cultural heritage byUNESCO.[353] In addition,Daniela Soto-Innes was named the best female chef in the world byThe World's Best 50 Restaurants in April 2019 andElena Reygadas in 2023.[354]
Mexican literature has its antecedents in the literature of the indigenous settlements of Mesoamerica. Poetry had a rich cultural tradition in pre-Columbian Mexico, being divided into two broad categories—secular and religious. Aztec poetry was sung, chanted, or spoken, often to the accompaniment of a drum or a harp. While Tenochtitlan was the political capital,Texcoco was the cultural center; the Texcocan language was considered the most melodious and refined. The best well-known pre-Columbian poet isNezahualcoyotl.[355]
Mexican films from theGolden Age in the 1940s and 1950s are the greatest examples of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to the Hollywood of those years. Mexican films were exported and exhibited in all of Latin America and Europe.María Candelaria (1943) byEmilio Fernández, was one of the first films awarded aPalme d'Or at theCannes Film Festival in 1946, the first time the event was held after World War II. The famous Spanish-born directorLuis Buñuel realized in Mexico between 1947 and 1965 some of his masterpieces likeLos Olvidados (1949) andViridiana (1961). Famous actors and actresses from this period includeMaría Félix,Pedro Infante,Dolores del Río,Jorge Negrete and the comedianCantinflas.
Mexico has a long tradition of music from the prehispanic era to the present. Much of the music from the colonial era was composed for religious purposes.[357][358]
Although the traditions of European opera and especiallyItalian opera had initially dominated the Mexican music conservatories and strongly influenced native opera composers (in both style and subject matter), elements of Mexican nationalism had already appeared by the latter part of the 19th century with operas such asAniceto Ortega del Villar's 1871Guatimotzin, a romanticized account of the defense of Mexico by its lastAztec ruler,Cuauhtémoc. The most well-known Mexican composer of the twentieth century isCarlos Chávez (1899–1978), who composed six symphonies with indigenous themes, and rejuvenated Mexican music, founding the Orquesta Sinfónica Nacional.[359]
Traditional Mexican music includesmariachi,banda,norteño,ranchera, andcorridos. Corridos were particularly popular during the Mexican Revolution (1910–20) and in the present era includenarcocorridos. The embrace of rock and roll by young Mexicans in the 1960s and 1970s brought Mexico into the transnational, counterculture movement of the era. In Mexico, the native rock culture merged into the larger countercultural and political movement of the late 1960s, culminating in the 1968 protests and redirected into counterculture rebellion,La Onda (the wave).[360][361]
On an everyday basis most Mexicans listen to contemporary music such aspop,rock, and others in both English and Spanish.Folk dance of Mexico along with its music is both deeply regional and traditional. Founded in 1952, theBallet Folklórico de México performs music and dance of the prehispanic period through the Mexican Revolution in regional attire in thePalacio de Bellas Artes.[362]
Telenovelas, orsoap operas, are very traditional in Mexico and are translated to many languages and seen all over the world. Mexico was a pioneer inedutainment, with TV producerMiguel Sabido creating in 1970s "soap operas for social change". The "Sabido method" has been adopted in many other countries subsequently, including India, Peru, Kenya, and China.[363] The Mexican government successfully used a telenovela to promote family planning in the 1970s to curb the country's high birth rate.[364]
Bilingual government radio stations broadcasting in Spanish and indigenous languages were a tool for indigenous education (1958–65) and since 1979 theInstituto Nacional Indigenista has established a national network of bilingual radio stations.[365]
There was a major reform of the telecommunications industry in 2013, with the creation of new broadcast television channels. There had been a longstanding limitation on the number of networks, withTelevisa, with a virtual monopoly;TV Azteca, andImagen Television. New technology has allowed the entry of foreign satellite and cable companies. Mexico became the first Latin American country to transition from analog to all digital transmissions.[366]
Organized sport in Mexico largely dates from the late nineteenth century, with onlybullfighting having a long history dating to the early colonial era. Once the political turmoil of the early republic was replaced by the stability of thePorfiriato did organized sport become public diversions, with structured and ordered play governed by rules and authorities. Baseball was introduced from the United States and also via Cuba in the 1880s and organized teams were created. After the Mexican Revolution, the government sponsored sports to counter the international image of political turmoil and violence.[367] Mexico's most popular sport is association football.
The bid to host the1968 Summer Olympics was to burnish Mexico's stature internationally, with it being the first Latin American country to host the games. The government spent abundantly on sporting facilities and other infrastructure to make the games a success, but those expenditures helped fuel public discontent with the government's lack of spending on social programs.[367] Mexico City hosted theXIX Olympic Games in 1968, making it the first Latin American city to do so.[368] Mexico hosted the1970 FIFA World Cup and the1986 FIFA World Cup[369] and will co-host, along with Canada and the United States, the2026 FIFA World Cup. With its past hosting of the 1970 and 1986 tournaments, Mexico will become the first country to host or co-host the men's World Cup three times.[370]
Mexico is an international power inprofessional boxing.[371] FourteenOlympic boxing medals have been won by Mexico.[372] The Mexican professional baseball league is named theLiga Mexicana de Beisbol. While usually not as strong as the United States, the Caribbean countries and Japan,Mexico has nonetheless achieved several international baseball titles.[373][374]Lucha Libre (freestyle professional wrestling) is also major crowd draw with national promotions such asAAA,CMLL and others.[371]
Despite efforts by animal rights activists to outlaw bullfighting, it remains a popular sport in the country, and almost all large cities have bullrings.Plaza México in Mexico City, which seats 45,000 people, is the largest bullring in the world.[375]
^Diehl, Richard A. (2004).The Olmecs: America's First Civilization. Thames & Hudson. pp. 9–25.ISBN978-0-500-02119-4.
^Carmack, Robert M.; Gasco, Janine L.; Gossen, Gary H. (2016).The Legacy of Mesoamerica: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization. Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-34678-4.[page needed]
^Restall, Matthew, "A History of the New Philology and the New Philology in History",Latin American Research Review - Volume 38, Number 1, 2003, pp.113–134
^Charlotte M. Gradie (2000). "The Tepehuan Revolt of 1616: Militarism, Evangelism, and Colonialism in Seventeenth-Century Nueva Vizcaya".The Americas.58 (2). Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press:302–303.doi:10.1353/tam.2001.0109.S2CID144896113.
^Wasserstrom, Robert (1980). "Ethnic Violence and Indigenous Protest: The Tzeltal (Maya) Rebellion of 1712".Journal of Latin American Studies.12:1–19.doi:10.1017/S0022216X00017533.S2CID145718069.
^Taylor, William B. (1 June 1979).Drinking, Homicide, and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages (1st ed.). Stanford: Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0804711128.
^Van Young,Stormy Passage, "The Age of Santa Anna", 227–270
^Weber, David J.,The Mexican Frontier, 1821–1846: The American Southwest under Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, 1982
^Angel Miranda Basurto (2002).La Evolucíon de Mėxico [The Evolution of Mexico] (in Spanish) (6th ed.). Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa. p. 358.ISBN970-07-3678-4.
^Adela M. Olvera (2 February 2018)."El Porfiriato en Mexico" [The Porfirio Era in Mexico].Inside Mexico.com (in Spanish).Archived from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved18 July 2019.
^Brenner, Anita (1 January 1984).The Wind that Swept Mexico: The History of the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1942 (New ed.). University of Texas Press.ISBN978-0292790247.
^Benjamin, Thomas.La Revolución: Mexico's Great Revolution as Memory, Myth, and History. Austin: University of Texas Press 2000
^Hayden, Cori. 2003.When Nature Goes Public: The Making and Unmaking of Bioproscpecting in Mexico. Princeton University Press.
^Laveaga, Gabriela Soto (2009).Jungle Laboratories: Mexican Peasants, National Projects, and the Making of the Pill. Duke University Press.ISBN978-0-8223-9196-8.[page needed]
^abcdef"Articles 50 to 79".Political Constitution of the United Mexican States. Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States. Archived fromthe original on 13 November 2006. Retrieved3 October 2007.
^abcd"Third Title, First Chapter, About Electoral systems, Article 11–1"(PDF).Código Federal de Instituciones y Procedimientos Electorales (Federal Code of Electoral Institutions and Procedures) (in Spanish). Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States. 15 August 1990. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 25 October 2007. Retrieved3 October 2007.
^Niko Vorobyov, ed. (2019).Dopeworld: Adventures in Drug Lands.Hachette UK.ISBN9781317755098.Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved19 January 2021.... Mexico spent most of the twentieth century governed by the Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI, a bigtent, catch-all alliance that included everyone ...
^abPolitical Constitution of the United Mexican States (5 February 1917)."Article 89, Section 10"(PDF) (in Spanish). Chamber of Deputies. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 25 August 2007. Retrieved28 March 2009.
^Internal Rules of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (10 August 2001)."Article 2, Section 1" (in Spanish). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived fromthe original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved28 March 2009.
^Organization of Ibero-American States."Members" (in Spanish). OEI official website.Archived from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved6 April 2009.
^OPANAL."Members". OPANAL official website. Archived fromthe original on 14 August 2009. Retrieved6 April 2009.
^Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (18 May 1994)."Members". OECD official website.Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved6 April 2009.
^[6]Archived 27 May 2022 at theWayback Machine "How Mexico's Cartels Have Learned Military Tactics", accessed 8 May 2022
^Brianna Lee; Danielle Renwick; Rocio Cara Labrador (24 January 2019)."Mexico's Drug War".Council on Foreign Relations.Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved19 July 2019.
^García, Daniela (7 September 2016)."Inauguran Kia Motors en Pesquería" [Kia Motors launched in Pesquería].Milenio (in Spanish). Pesquería.Archived from the original on 4 June 2020. Retrieved4 June 2020.
^[9]Archived 18 May 2022 at theWayback Machine "Most of the $33 Billion in Remittances to Mexico Flow Via U.S. Govt. Banking Program",Judicial Watch, accessed 12 May 2022
^"Human Development Report 2009"(PDF).United Nations Development Programme. United Nations. p. 118.Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved4 June 2020.
^Michael Blastland (31 July 2009)."Just what is poor?".BBC News. Retrieved27 August 2019. The "economic distance" concept, and a level of income set at 60% of the median household income
^ab"Infraestructura Carretera"(PDF).dgaf.sct.gob.mx. México: Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 16 July 2007. Retrieved13 January 2007.
^Transporte, Instituto Mexicano del."Red Nacional de Caminos".gob.mx (in Spanish).Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved6 July 2023.
^Knight, Alan. 1990. "Racism, Revolution andindigenismo: Mexico 1910–1940". Chapter 4 inThe Idea of Race in Latin America, 1870–1940. Richard Graham (ed.) pp. 78–85
^Wimmer, Andreas, 2002.Nationalist Exclusion and Ethnic Conflict: Shadows of Modernity, Cambridge University Press page 115
^Navarrete Linares, Federico."El mestizaje en Mexico" [The miscegenation in Mexico](PDF) (in Spanish). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 1 August 2017. Retrieved31 July 2017.
^abcdefghAyala, María Isabel (2015). "The Demography of Race and Ethnicity of Mexico".The International Handbook of the Demography of Race and Ethnicity. International Handbooks of Population. Vol. 4. pp. 73–90.doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8891-8_4.ISBN978-90-481-8890-1.
^Fuentes-Nieva, Ricardo (6 July 2017)."Ser blanco" [Being white].El Universal (in Spanish).Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved20 December 2020.
^"21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" [March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination](PDF) (in Spanish). Mexico:CONAPRED. 2017. p. 7.Archived(PDF) from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved23 August 2017. In the page 7 of the press release, the council reported that 53.5% of Mexican women and 39.4% of Mexican men identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionary,CONAPRED, Mexico, March 21. Retrieved on April 28, 2017.
^"Une Langue Pour Apprendre"(PDF) (in French). Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. 6 September 2010. p. 132. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 13 November 2018. Retrieved11 September 2018.
^"Cours de français" (in French). Ambassade de France à Mexico. 19 March 2013.Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved11 September 2018.
^"Church attendance".Study of worldwide rates of religiosity. University of Michigan. 1997. Archived fromthe original on 1 September 2006. Retrieved3 January 2007.
^Jacobo Grinberg Zylberbaum (1989).Los chamanes de México (University of Texas ed.). Mexico City: UNAM School of Psychology.ISBN9686022015.Archived from the original on 21 February 2024. Retrieved19 August 2019.
^Katzew, Ilona.Casta Painting: Images of Race in Eighteenth-Century Mexico. New Haven: Yale University Press 2005
^Widdiefield, Stacie G.The Embodiment of the National in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexican Painting. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1996
^Anreus, Robin Adèle Greeley, and Leonard Folgarait, eds.Mexican Muralism: A Critical History. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 2012.
^Lozano, Luis-Martin, ed.Frida Kahlo: The Complete Paintings. Taschen 2021.ISBN9783836574204
^Endicott, Katherine (14 October 2006)."The Mexican garden revisited".San Francisco Chronicle.Archived from the original on 19 September 2011. Retrieved26 June 2009.
^Zolov, Eric.Refried Elvis: The Rise of Mexican Counterculture. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1999.
^"An Introduction to the Ballet Folklórico de México" ([10]). Accessed 15 May 2022.
^Hanna Rosin, "Life Lessons: How Soap Operas Can Change the World",The New Yorker, 5 June 2006, pp. 40–45.
^Soto Laveaga, Gabriela, "'Let's become fewer': Soap operas, contraception, and nationalizing the Mexican family in an overpopulated world."Sexuality Research and Social Policy. September 2007, vol. 4, no. 3 pp. 19–33.
^Dillingham, A.S.Oaxaca Resurgent: Indigeneity, Development, and Inequality in Twentieth-Century Mexico. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2021, 47–49, 69–70.ISBN9781503627840
^[11] World Fact Book, Mexico. accessed 4 May 2022
^"About CONCACAF". The Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF). Archived fromthe original on 6 October 2007. Retrieved7 October 2007.
^"LOS TOROS EN MÉXICO" [Bullfighting in Mexico],Don Quijote (in Spanish), retrieved11 July 2019
Further reading
Anna, Timothy.Forging Mexico, 1821-1835. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1998.
Adams, Richard E.W.Prehispanic Mesoamerica. 3rd. ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2005.
Beezley, William H., ed.A Companion to Mexican History and Culture. Blackwell 2011.ISBN9781405190572
Bulmer-Thomas, Victor,John H. Coatsworth, and Roberto Cortés Conde, eds.The Cambridge Economic History of Latin America. Vol. 1, The Colonial Era and the Short Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2006.
Camp, Roderic Ai.Politics in Mexico: Democratic Consolidation or Decline? (Oxford University Press, 2014)
Coerver, Don M., Suzanne B. Pasztor, and Robert M. Buffington.Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History. Santa Barbara: ABCClio 2004.ISBN1-57607-132-4
Davis, Diane.Urban Leviathan: Mexico City in the Twentieth Century (Temple University Press, 2010)
Hale, Charles A.The Transformation of Mexican Liberalism in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1989.
Hamnett, Brian R.Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions 1750-1824. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985.
Levy, Santiago.Good intentions, bad outcomes: Social policy, informality, and economic growth in Mexico (Brookings Institution Press, 2010).
Merrill, Tim and Ramón Miró.Mexico: a country study (Library of Congress. Federal Research Division, 1996) US government document; not copyrightonline free
Meyer, Michael C., William L. Sherman, and Susan M. Deeds.The Course of Mexican History (7th ed.) (Oxford University Press, 2002)online editionArchived 2 February 2011 at theWayback Machine
Rugeley, Terry.Epic Mexico: A History from Earliest Times. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2020.ISBN9780806167077
Van Young, Eric.Stormy Passage: Mexico from Colony to Republic, 1750-1850. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2022.ISBN9781442209015
Vinson, Ben, III.Before Mestizaje: The Frontiers of Race and Caste in Colonial Mexico. New York: Cambridge University Press 2018.
Werner, Michael S. ed.Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society & Culture (2 vol 1997) 1440pponline editionArchived 24 January 2010 at theWayback Machine
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.JPG)
_-_508.jpg)
.jpg)
_-_166.jpg)
_al_amanecer.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
