Málaga's history spans about 2,800 years, making it one of theoldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe. According to most scholars, it was founded about 770BC by thePhoenicians fromTyre asMalaka.[5] From the 6th centuryBC the city was under the hegemony ofAncient Carthage, and from 218BC, it was underRoman rule, economically prospering owing togarum production.[6] In the 8th century, after a period of Visigothic and Byzantine rule, it was placed under Islamic rule. In 1487, theCrown of Castile gained control in the midst of theGranada War. In the 19th century, the city underwent a period of industrialisation followed by a decay in all socioeconomic parametres in the last third of the century.[7]
After thePunic Wars, theRoman Republic took control of the town known to them asMalaca. By the 1st century BC,Strabo alluded to its Phoenician profile, in contrast to the hellenised characteristics of the neighbouring settlement ofMainake.[12]
Transformed into a confederated city, it was under a special law, theLex Flavia Malacitana. ARoman theatre was built at this time.[13] After the fall of theWestern Roman Empire, it was ruled first by theVisigoths. The city was takenc. 552 by theByzantine Empire;[14] either Malaca orCarthago Nova possibly then becoming the capital of the province ofSpania.[15] The Byzantines restored and expanded the docks, thus consolidating the fishing and trading tradition the city already enjoyed.[15] The city was retaken by the Visigoth KingSisebut in 615.[16] The Islamic conquest of Málaga (rendered asمالقة—Mālaqah—in Arab sources) by Arab and Berber forces took place in 711 or perhaps 713.[17] Following a period of diminished importance during the early stages of theemiral period already in force since before the conquest, Málaga was fullyIslamised by the end of the aforementioned period in the wake ofMuhammad I's attributed intervention in the urban configuration as amedina.[18]
A 19th-century reconstruction of Islamic Malaqah
The consolidation of the city's importance after 930 (under theCaliphate of Córdoba) ran parallel to the diminishing fortune ofArchidona, the latter of which Málaga replaced as the capital of the correspondingkura of Rayya.[19][20] The early 10th-century chronicle ofAḥmad al-Rāzī mentions the vineyards of Málaga, extolling the unparalleled quality of itsraisins.[21] In the 11th century, following the unravelling of Umayyad authority across the caliphate, Málaga became a centre of power of theHammudids, who established a petty kingdom (nominally also a caliphate) in the city, thetaifa of Málaga, complemented by the also Hammudidsister dominion in Ceuta across the Strait of Gibraltar.[22] The city was seized away from the Hammudids by theGranadan Zirids in 1056 or 1057, and also underwent an ephemeral spell under theSevillian Abbadids by 1066 before returning to the former.[23] By the late 11th century, the Zirids lost the city to the North AfricanAlmoravids.[23]
The travellerIbn Battuta, who passed through around 1325, characterised it as "one of the largest and most beautiful towns of Andalusia [uniting] the conveniences of both sea and land, and... abundantly supplied with foodstuffs and fruits". He praised its grapes, figs, and almonds; "its ruby-coloured Murcianpomegranates have no equal in the world." Another exported product was its "excellent gilded pottery". The town's mosque was large, with "exceptionally tall orange trees" in its courtyard.[24]
Ceramic plate from Málaga (14th century)
After the formation of theNasrid Kingdom of Granada in the 13th century, Málaga became a part of it.[25] The export-oriented harbour traded silk fabrics,dry nuts (raisins, almonds and the famous Rayya figs, reportedly exported to as far as China), wine, cutlery, leather and the famous regionallustreware.[25]
In the 15th century, Málaga was the main Nasrid port (followed by Almería),[26] featuring a notable presence ofGenoese merchants.[27] It played a role both as stopover of the Atlantic international trade (as part of the routes connecting the Central Mediterranean to the North Atlantic) and as regional trading cog of the Kingdom of Granada.[28] By the last rales of Nasrid rule, the city had a population of about 15,000.[29]
Málaga was seized by Christian forces on 18 August 1487,[30] after a 3-month 11 days siege,[31] in what was the most violent episode of theGranada War. The Muslim inhabitants resisted assaults and artillery bombardments before hunger forced them to surrender; practically the entire remaining population (around 11,000 people) became war captives and were sold into slavery in other Andalusian cities as well as Valencia and Barcelona.[32][33] The Jewish population was also taken prisoner and held inCarmona, and a ransom was imposed on them, partly covered by their own assets and partly collected through emissaries.[34] Only a minority of around 50 people led by merchant Alí Dordux were allowed to remain in the city.[35]
The city's Muslim population was converted toCatholic Christianity and the city was swiftly repopulated by Christian settlers coming from different locations of theIberian Peninsula.[35] Málaga became an exporting centre for Andalusia via the link of the city with Antequera and Córdoba, maintaining its trading character despite the nearly complete replacement of the population.[36] The city did not escape a series oftyphus fever outbreaks following its annexation to theCrown of Castile.[37]
Following the death of regentFerdinand the city rose in revolt in 1516 on the occasion of the installment of a new court controlled by the Admiral of Castile.[38] It was only on 2 December 1530 when Málaga was freed from the influence of the Admiralty for good, confirming the privileges granted in the past by the Catholic Monarchs.[39]
The city's economy profited from an early industrialisation in the first third of the 19th century and the population steadily increased until the last years of the century,[42] when the population decreased between 1887 and 1897 due tothe economic crisis [es] induced by thePhylloxera grapevine pest.[43] The century saw theaccumulation of capital in an enriched bourgeoisie class, that invested in the incipient industrial development.[44]
The municipality of Málaga annexed the coastal town ofTorremolinos in 1924.
Republican refugees fleeing Málaga during theDesbandá (8 February 1937).
After thecoup of July 1936 the government of theSecond Republic retained control of Málaga. Its harbour was a base of theRepublican navy at the beginning of theSpanish Civil War. It suffered heavy bombing byItalianwarships which took part in breaking the Republican navy'sblockade of Nationalist-heldSpanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican-held Málaga.[45] After the Battle of Málaga and theFrancoist takeover in February 1937, over seven thousand people were killed,[46] as they were trying to flee the city through the road toAlmería.[a]
Torremolinos—originally a small coastal town—greatly developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s, becoming an international tourist centre.[47] The first gay bar in Spain was opened in Torremolinos in 1962 (and the first lesbian club in 1968),[48] and the place acquired a lively LGBT life, to the point of being described as "the most 'cosmopolitan' and gay-friendly place in all of Spain".[49] Nearly a decade after, in 1971, a policial crackdown seeking to curb "offences against public morality and decency" largely put an end to the appeal of the place, only regaining its status as hub of LGBT leisure and tourism after the death of the dictator.[48]
Torremolinos became independent from the municipality of Málaga in September 1988.[50]
Málaga is located in the south of theIberian Peninsula, on theCosta del Sol (Coast of the Sun) on the northern side of theAlboran Sea (the westernmost portion of theMediterranean Sea). It lies about 100 kilometres (62 miles) east of theStrait of Gibraltar and about 130 kilometres (81 miles) east ofTarifa (the southernmost point of continental Europe) and about 130 km (81 miles) to the north of Africa.
TheMontes de Málaga mountain range (part of thePenibaetic System) is located in the northeast of the municipality. The highest point in the range (and in the municipality) is thePico Reina, rising up to 1,031 m (3,383 ft) above sea level.[51]
The city centre is located around the mouth of theGuadalmedina and close to theGuadalhorce's mouth (where the airport is located). The Totalán Creek constitutes the eastern boundary of Málaga with the municipality ofRincón de la Victoria.[52]
Málaga's climate is ahot-summer Mediterranean climate[54] (Köppen climate classificationCsa,Trewartha+Universal Thermal Scale:Csal)[55] with mild winters, during which most of the year's rainfall occurs, and hot summers with very little rainfall. Summer to early-autumn tends to be moderately humid, due to the evaporation of warm water off the adjacentMediterranean Sea being blown on shore by asea breeze. This humidity is most pronounced at this time of year as the sea water is at its warmest in relation to the rest of the year. On particularly humid days, which occasionally occurs, theapparent temperature feels higher than the actual temperature would suggest, especially when the wind is light. When the wind is stronger, this effect is lessened somewhat, and the heat feels more manageable.[56] Málaga enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the year, with an average of about 300 days of sunshine and only about 40–45 with precipitation annually.[57]
Málaga experiences the warmest winters of any European city with a population over 500,000.[citation needed] The average maximum temperature during the day in the period from December to February is 17–18 °C (63–64 °F). During the winter, theMálaga Mountains (Montes de Málaga) block the passage of cold winds from the north.[56][better source needed] Its average annual temperature is 23.6 °C (74.5 °F) during the day and 14.2 °C (57.6 °F) at night. In the coldest month, January, the temperature ranges from 14 to 20 °C (57 to 68 °F) during the day, 5 to 10 °C (41 to 50 °F) at night and the average sea temperature is 16 °C (61 °F). In the warmest month, August, the temperature ranges from 26 to 34 °C (79 to 93 °F) during the day, above 20 °C (68 °F) at night and the average sea temperature is 23 °C (73 °F).[58]
Large fluctuations in temperature are rare. The highest temperature ever recorded at the airport was 44.2 °C (111.6 °F) on 18 July 1978, equalled on 19 July 2023. In August 1881, the average reported daytime maximum temperature was a record 34.8 °C (94.6 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded was −3.8 °C (25.2 °F) on 4 February 1954.[59][60] The highest wind speed ever recorded was on 16 July 1980, measuring 119 km/h (73.94 mph). Snowfall is virtually unknown; since the beginning of the 20th century, Málaga city has only recorded snow on one day, on 2 February 1954.[61]
Annual averagerelative humidity is 65%, ranging from 58% in June to 72% in December.[62] Yearly sunshine hours average between 2,800 and 3,000 per year, from 5–6 hours of sunshine per day in December to average 11 hours of sunshine per day in July.[62][63][64]
AtMálaga Airportweather station, annual wind speeds average from 14 km/h (8.70 mph) in December, January and February, to 10 km/h (6.21 mph) in September and October. Atmospheric pressure averages from 1015 mbar in July and August to 1023 mbar in January. Visibility averages either 11 or 12 km in all months.[65] The strongest gust of wind recorded at this station was 130 km/h (80.78 mph) on 27 January 1948 at 02:30.[66] On 12 December 2023, Málaga brokeSpain's andEurope's all-time December temperature record, settling a new record of 29.9 °C (85.8 °F) at theAEMET station of Málaga and 29.6 °C (85.3 °F) at the airport of Málaga.[67]
The historicAnglican Cemetery of St. George is the oldest non-Roman Catholic Christian cemetery established on mainland Spain (in 1831).
The old historic centre of Málaga reaches the harbour to the south. In the north it is surrounded by mountains, theMontes de Málaga (part of theBaetic Cordillera) lying in the southern base of the Axarquía hills, and two rivers, theGuadalmedina – the historic center is located on its left bank – and theGuadalhorce, which flows west of the city into the Mediterranean, in the Churriana district.
The oldest architectural remains in the city are the walls of the Phoenician city, which are visible in the cellar of theMuseo Picasso Málaga.
The Roman theatre of Málaga, which dates from the 1st century BC, was rediscovered in 1951.[77]
The Moors left posterity the dominating presence of theCastle of Gibralfaro, which is connected to theAlcazaba, the lower fortress and royal residence. Both were built during theTaifa period (11th century) and extended during theNasrid period (13th and 14th centuries). The Alcazaba stands on a hill within the city. Originally, it defended the city from the incursions of pirates. Later, in the 11th century, it was completely rebuilt by theHammudid dynasty.[78] Occupying the eastern hillside that rises from the sea and overlooks the city, the Alcazaba was surrounded by palms and pine trees.
Like many of the military fortifications that were constructed in Islamic Spain, the Alcazaba of Málaga featured a quadrangular plan. It was protected by an outer and inner wall, both supported by rectangular towers, between which a covered walkway led up the slope to the Gibralfaro (this was the only exchange between the two sites). Due to its rough and awkward hillside topography, corridors throughout the site provided a means of communications for administrative and defensive operations, also affording privacy to the palatial residential quarters.
The entrance of the complex featured a grand tower that led into a sophisticated double bent entrance. After passing through several gates, open yards with gardens of pine and eucalyptus trees, and the inner wall through the Puerta de Granada, one finds the 11th- and 14th-century Governor's palace. It was organised around a central rectangular courtyard with a triple-arched gateway and some of the rooms have been preserved to this day. An open 11th-century mirador (belvedere) to the south of this area affords views of the gardens and sea below. Measuring 2.5 square metres (27 square feet), this small structure highlighted scalloped, five-lobed arches. To the north of this area were a waterwheel and a Cyclopean well (penetrating forty metres or 130 feet below ground), a hammam, workshops and the monumentalPuerta de la Torre del Homenaje, the northernmost point of the inner walls. Directly beyond was the passage to the Gibralfaro above.
TheChurch of Santiago (Saint James) is an example of Gothic vernacularMudéjar, the hybrid style that evolved after theReconquista incorporating elements from both Christian and Islamic tradition. Also from the period is theIglesia del Sagrario, which was built on the site of the old mosque immediately after the city fell to Christian troops. It boasts a richly ornamented portal in the Isabeline-Gothic style, unique in the city.[79]
TheCathedral and theEpiscopal Palace were planned with Renaissance architectural ideals but there was a shortfall of building funds and they were finished in Baroque style.
Together about 1.3 million (max. 1.6 million[citation needed]) people live in the Málaga metropolitan area and the number grows every year as all the municipalities and cities of the area record an annual increase in population.
Málaga is amunicipality, the basic local administrative division in Spain. TheAyuntamiento is the body charged with the municipal government and administration. The Plenary of theayuntamiento is formed by 31 elected municipal councillors, who in turn invest themayor. The last municipal election took place on 26 May 2019. The current mayor isFrancisco de la Torre (People's Party), who has won several mandates since becoming mayor in 2000.[88] Thecity hall is located at theCasona del Parque [es], aNeo-Baroque building inaugurated in 1919.[89]
The most important business sectors in Málaga are tourism, construction and technology services, but other sectors such as transportation andlogistics are beginning to expand. TheAndalusia Technology Park (PTA) (In Spanish, "Parque Tecnológico de Andalucía"), located in Málaga, has enjoyed significant growth since its inauguration in 1992 by theKing of Spain. In 2018, this high-tech, science and industrial park employs over 16,774 workers, according to its own numbers.[90]
In line with the city's strategic plan, the campaign "Málaga: Open for Business" is directed towards the international promotion of the city on all levels but fundamentally on a business level. The campaign places a special emphasis on new technologies as well as innovation and research in order to promote the city as a reference and focal point for many global business initiatives and projects.[91]
Málaga is a city of commerce and tourism has been a growing source of revenue, driven by the presence of a major airport, the improvement of communications, and new infrastructure such as the AVE and the maritime station, and new cultural facilities such as the Picasso Museum, the Contemporary Art Centre and Trade Fair and Congress, which have drawn more tourists.[92]
The city hosts the International Association of Science and Technology Parks (IASP) (Asociación Internacional de Parques Tecnológicos), and a group of IT company executives and business leaders has launched an information sector initiative, Málaga Valley e-27, which seeks to make Málaga the Silicon Valley of Europe. Málaga has had strong growth in new technology industries, mainly located in the Technological Park of Andalusia, and in the construction sector. The city is home to the largest bank in Andalusia,Unicaja, and such local companies asMayoral,Charanga,Sando,Vera,Ubago,Isofoton,Tedial,Novasoft,Grupo Vértice andAlmeida viajes, and other multinationals such asFujitsu Spain,Pernod Ricard Spain,Accenture,Epcos,Oracle Corporation,Huawei andSan Miguel.[93] In February 2021,Google decided to install a centre of excellence incybersecurity in the city, slated for a 2023 opening.[94] Also in 2021,Vodafone chose Málaga for the installment of a research, development and innovation centre.[95]
Distribution by sector industrial enterprises:[96]
Holy Week has been observed for five centuries in Málaga.[97] Processions start on Palm Sunday and continue until Easter Sunday. Images depicting scenes from the Passion are displayed on huge ornatetronos (floats or thrones), some weighing more than 5,000 kilograms (11,000 pounds). Famous is the royalarchbrotherhood of Our-Lady of HopeNuestra Señora de la Esperanza. They have more than 5,000 members and 600nazarenos [es]. Thesetronos highlight the processions that go through the streets led by penitents dressed in long robes, withcapirote, followed by women in black carrying candles. Drums and trumpets play music and occasionally someone spontaneously sings a mournful saeta dedicated to the floats as they make their way slowly round the streets. Some Holy Weektronos are so huge that they must be housed in places outside the churches, as they are taller than the entrance doors. Famous is the military procession of "la legion" (Royal congregation of Mena) playing marches and singing their anthem (El Novio de la Muerte) during procession.
During the celebration of theFeria de Málaga in August, the streets are transformed into traditional symbols of Spanish culture and history, with sweet wine, tapas, and live flamenco shows. The day events consist of dancing, live music (such asflamenco orverdiales, traditional music from Málaga) and bullfights atLa Malagueta, while the night fair is moved to the Recinto Ferial, consisting of restaurants, clubs, and an entire fair ground with rides and games.[98]
The Málaga Film Festival (Festival de Málaga Cine Español; FMCE), dedicated exclusively to films produced in Spain, is one of the most important film festivals in the country. It is held annually during a week in March or April.
Other
TheFiesta Mayor de Verdiales takes place every year on 28 December during which Spain's April Fools' Day is celebrated.[99]
TheFiestas de Carnaval, in which people dress in all types of costumes, takes place prior to the holy 40 days of Lent every February. A contest is held in theTeatro Cervantes between groups of singers, quartets and choirs who compete in the singing of ironic songs about social and political issues. The Carnival takes to the streets of Málaga on the week before Ash Wednesday, ending on Malagueta beach with theburial of the anchovy (entierro de la sardina).[99]
Most of the population of Málaga professesRoman Catholicism as its religion, although not many are practising Catholics.Protestants also have a presence in Málaga: one of seven congregations of theReformed Churches in Spain is based in the city and is the only one that permitspaedocommunion.
Islam is represented by a growing number ofimmigrants and a mosque, while theJewish community (primarilySephardi) is represented by its synagogue and the Jewish Association.
The city is an important tourist destination, known as "the capital of theCosta del Sol". An estimated 6 million tourists visit the city each year.[105] Tourists usually visit the birthplace ofPablo Picasso and theMuseo Picasso Málaga, the Carmen Thyssen Museum, the old town or the beaches. The Málaga harbour is also the second busiest cruise port of the Iberian Peninsula.[106]
A popular walk leads up the hill to theGibralfaro castle (aParador), offering panoramic views over the city. The castle is next to theAlcazaba, the old Muslim palace, which in turn is next to the inner city of Málaga. Other nearby attractions are the Roman Theatre, the old Jewish quarter (orjudería), the cathedral, and the Church of Santiago inmudéjar style. A popular walk follows thePaseo del Parque (a promenade that runs alongside a grand park with many palm trees and statues) to the harbour, ending inCalle Larios, the main commercial street of the city. There is also a curious museum, the Museum of the Holy Week (Museo de Arte Cofrade), which includes an impressive display of Baroque ecclesiastical items.[107]
In the early part of the 21st century, the city of Málaga invested heavily (more than 100 million euros in 10 years)[108] in the arts to draw tourists and establish itself as a cultural Andalucia destination with 28 museums.[109] Some notable and recently opened museums include theMuseo Municipal de Málaga, theMuseo de Málaga (Fine Arts and Archeology museum) at thePalacio de la Aduana,Carmen Thyssen Museum, opened in 2011, located atPalacio de Villalón, theMuseo Picasso Málaga (opened in 2003, at thePalacio de los Condes de Buenavista) near the cathedral,[b] theCentre Pompidou Málaga [es] (opened in 2015, located inEl Cubo), theFundación Picasso and Picasso Birthplace Museum, the Colección del Museo Ruso (Collection of the Russian Museum) Saint Petersburg/Málaga, (opened in 2015, located in the Tabacalera building), theMuseum Jorge Rando (opened in 2015), the Museo de Artes y Costumbres Populares (Museum of Arts and Popular Traditions), and the Centro de Arte Contemporáneo de Málaga (CAC Málaga; opened 2003 and closed for renovation, without a planned reopening date, on 8 September 2024,[111] located near the Alameda train station).
Since the launch of the 'Plan de Fomento del Plurilingüismo' in 2005, 169 schools in Málaga have included bilingual education in their programmes.[112] Although English is the most usual second language, many other primary and secondary schools in Málaga offer the choice of French, German, Arabic, Portuguese or Chinese. This first action has been followed by a second project run by the Junta de Andalucia. The so-called "Plan Estratégico de Desarrollo de las Lenguas en Andalucía" intends to provide pupils with a basic level (B1) of at least one foreign language.[113]
Dance, music, theater, visual arts, architecture,[114] and handicrafts also have a place in the public education system of Málaga. Some of the most relevant artistic schools are:
Escuela de Arte San Telmo: Arts and Crafts, vocational and high-school education.[115]
Conservatorio Profesional de Musica Manuel Carra: music, vocational training.[116]
Conservatorio Profesional de Danza de Málaga: dance, vocational training.[117]
Conservatorio Superior de Música de Málaga: Bachelor and Master level.[118]
Escuela Superior de Artes Escénicas de Málaga (Bachelor and Master level).[119]
Colegio de arquitectos Málaga (Bachelor and Master level).
Málaga has become one of the leading destinations for Spanish courses. In 2017, 16,692 students visited Málaga to enroll in Spanish courses, 17.6% more than 2016.[120]
The public University of Málaga (UMA) was created in 1972.[121] Further, in 1963, a branch of theUniversity of Granada (a Faculty of Economic and Business Sciences) opened.[121]
The campus of the UMA is located in the Western neighbourhood of Teatinos.
The city is served by Málaga-Costa del Sol Airport, one of the first in Spain and the oldest still in operation. In 2008, it handled 12,813,472 passengers,[122] making it thefourth-busiest in Spain. It is the international airport of Andalusia, accounting for 85 percent of its international traffic. The airport, connected to the Costa del Sol, has a daily link with twenty cities in Spain and over a hundred cities in Europe (mainly in theUnited Kingdom, Central Europe and the Nordic countries but also the main cities of Eastern Europe:Bucharest,Budapest,Sofia andWarsaw), North Africa, Middle East (Riyadh,Jeddah andKuwait) and North America (New York City,Toronto andMontreal).
The airport is connected to the city centre and surrounding areas through a transport hub, which includes the bus system and suburban trains[123][124][125] and car parks.[citation needed]
The Port of Málaga is the city's seaport, operating continuously at least since 600 BC. The port is one of the busiest ports on the Mediterranean Sea, with a trade volume of over 428,623TEU and 642,529 passengers in 2008.[126]
The port has aferry connection to thePort of Melilla, playing a role in the so-calledOperación paso del estrecho ("Operation Pass of the Strait"), the planned seasonal transit of passengers during the summer months from Europe to North-Africa (and back to Europe).[127]
Empresa Malagueña de Transportes[128] buses are the main form of transport around the city.[129] Málaga'sbus station is connected with the city by the bus line number 4, although it is only ten minutes' walk to the Alameda from there.
Metropolitan bus
The buses of theMálaga Metropolitan Transport Consortium (Consorcio de Transporte Metropolitano del Área de Málaga)[130] are the main mean of transportation around the city of Málaga and the surrounding municipalities.
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Málaga, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 49 min. 6% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 9 min, while 8% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 4.1 km, while 1% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.[132]
^The well-known British journalist and writerArthur Koestler was captured by the Nationalist forces on their entry into Málaga, which formed the material for his bookSpanish Testament. The first chapters of the book include an eye-witness account of the 1937 fall of Málaga toFrancisco Franco's armies during theSpanish Civil War.
^From 2015 to 2017 it was the most visited museum in all Málaga.[110]
^Matthew Carr,Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain (New York: The New Press, 2009) p.7 ISBN 9781595583611
^Beinart, Haim (2001).The Expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. Vol. 1. Translated by Jeffrey M. Green. Oxford: The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization in association with Liverpool University Press. p. 24.
^Balfour, Sebastian; Preston, Paul (2009).Spain and the great powers in the twentieth century. London, UK; New York, US: Routledge. p. 172.ISBN978-0-415-18078-8.
^Fernández Galeano, Javier (2016). "Is He a "Social Danger"?: The Franco Regime's Judicial Prosecution of Homosexuality in Málaga under the Ley de Vagos y Maleantes".Journal of the History of Sexuality.25 (1): 8.
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