TheMoon bears substantialnatural resources which could be exploited in the future.^[1][2] Potentiallunar resources may encompass processable materials such asvolatiles andminerals, along with geologic structures such aslava tubes that, together, might enablelunar habitation. Thein-situ use (ISRU) of resources on the Moon may provide a means of reducing the cost and risk oflunar exploration and beyond.^[3][4]

Resource mapping and sample-return missions have enhanced the understanding of the potential for lunar ISRU. An assessment in 2019 concluded that knowledge was not yet sufficient to justify the commitment of large financial resources to implement an ISRU-based campaign.^[5] The determination of resource availability will drive the selection of sites for human settlement.^[6][7]

Lunar materials could facilitate continued exploration of the Moon, facilitate scientific and economic activity in the vicinity of both Earth and Moon (so-called cislunar space), or they could be imported to the Earth's surface where they would contribute directly to the global economy.^[1] Regolith (lunar soil) is the easiest product to obtain; it can provide radiation and micrometeoroid protection as well as construction and paving material by melting.^[8] Oxygen from lunar regolith oxides can be a source for metabolic oxygen and rocket propellant oxidizer. Water ice can provide water forradiation shielding,life-support, oxygen and rocket propellant feedstock.Volatiles frompermanently shadowed craters may providemethane (CH
₄),ammonia (NH
₃),carbon dioxide (CO
₂) andcarbon monoxide (CO).^[9]Metals and other elements for local industry may be obtained from the various minerals found in regolith.

The Moon is known to be poor incarbon andnitrogen, and rich in metals and in atomicoxygen, but their distribution and concentrations are still unknown. Further lunar exploration will reveal additional concentrations of economically useful materials, and whether or not these will be economically exploitable will depend on the value placed on them and on the energy and infrastructure available to support their extraction.^[10] Forin situ resource utilization (ISRU) to be applied successfully on the Moon, landing site selection is imperative, as well as identifying suitable surface operations and technologies.

Scouting from lunar orbit by a few space agencies is ongoing, and landers androvers are scouting resources and concentrationsin situ (see:List of missions to the Moon).

Solar power,oxygen, andmetals are abundant resources on the Moon.^[12]Elements known to be present on the lunar surface include, among others,hydrogen (H),^[1][13]oxygen (O),silicon (Si),iron (Fe),magnesium (Mg),calcium (Ca),aluminium (Al),manganese (Mn) andtitanium (Ti). Among the more abundant are oxygen, iron and silicon. The atomic oxygen content in the regolith is estimated at 45% by weight.^[14][15]

Studies from Apollo 17's Lunar Atmospheric Composition Experiment (LACE) show that thelunar exosphere contains trace amounts of hydrogen (H₂), helium (He), argon (Ar), and possibly ammonia (NH₃), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and methane (CH₄). Several processes can explain the presence of trace gases on the Moon: high energy photons or solar winds reacting with materials on the lunar surface, evaporation of lunar regolith, material deposits from comets and meteoroids, and out-gassing from inside the Moon. However, these are trace gases in very low concentration.^[16] The total mass of the Moon's exosphere is roughly 25,000 kilograms (55,000 lb) with a surface pressure of 3×10⁻¹⁵ bar (2×10⁻¹² torr).^[17] Trace gas amounts are unlikely to be useful for in situ resource utilization.

Daylight on the Moon lasts approximately two weeks, followed by approximately two weeks of night, while both lunar poles are illuminated almost constantly.^[18][19][20] Thelunar south pole features a region with crater rims exposed to near constant solar illumination, yet the interior of the craters are permanently shaded from sunlight.

Solar cells could be fabricated directly on thelunar soil by a medium-size (~200 kg) rover with the capabilities for heating the regolith, evaporation of the appropriate semiconductor materials for the solar cell structure directly on the regolith substrate, and deposition of metallic contacts and interconnects to finish off a complete solar cell array directly on the ground.^[21] This process however requires the importation of potassium fluoride from Earth to purify the necessary materials from regolith.^[22]

TheKilopower nuclear fission system is being developed for reliable electric power generation that could enable long-duration crewed bases on the Moon, Mars and destinations beyond.^[23][24] This system is ideal for locations on the Moon and Mars where power generation from sunlight is intermittent.^[24][25]Uranium andthorium are both present on the Moon, but due to the highenergy density of nuclear fuels, it could be more economical to import suitable fuels from Earth rather than producing themin situ.

Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are another form of nuclear power which use the natural decay of radioisotopes rather than their induced fission. They have been used in space—including on the Moon—for decades. The usual process is to source the suitable substances from Earth, butplutonium-238 orstrontium-90 could be produced on the Moon if feedstocks such asspent nuclear fuel are present (either delivered from Earth for processing or produced by local fission reactors). RTGs could be used to deliver power independent of available sunlight, for both lunar and non-lunar applications. RTGs do contain harmful toxic and radioactive materials, which leads to concerns of unintentional distribution of those materials in the event of an accident. Protests by the general public therefore often focus on the phaseout of RTGs (instead recommending alternative power sources), due to anoverestimation of the dangers of radiation.

A more theoretical lunar resource are potential fuels fornuclear fusion.Helium-3 has received particular media attention as its abundance in lunar regolith is higher than on Earth. However, thus far nuclear fusion has not been employed by humans in a controlled fashion releasing net usable energy (devices like thefusor are net energy consumers while thehydrogen bomb is not acontrolled fusion reaction). Furthermore, while helium-3 is required for one possible pathway of nuclear fusion, others instead rely on nuclides which are more easily obtained on Earth, such astritium,lithium ordeuterium.

The elementaloxygen content in theregolith is estimated at 45% by weight.^[15][14] Oxygen is often found in iron-rich lunar minerals and glasses asiron oxide. Such lunar minerals and glass include ilmenite, olivine, pyroxene, impact glass, and volcanic glass.^[26] Various isotopes of oxygen are present on the Moon in the form of¹⁶O,¹⁷O, and¹⁸O.^[27]

At least twenty different possible processes for extracting oxygen from lunar regolith have been described,^[28][29] and all require high energy input: between 2–4 megawatt-years of energy (i.e.(6–12)×10¹³ J) to produce 1,000 tons of oxygen.^[1] While oxygen extraction from metal oxides also produces useful metals, using water as a feedstock does not.^[1] One possible method of producing oxygen from lunar soil requires two steps. The first step involves the reduction of iron oxide with hydrogen gas (H₂) to form elemental iron (Fe) and water (H₂O).^[26] Water can then beelectrolyzed to produce oxygen which can be liquified at low temperatures and stored. The amount of oxygen released depends on the iron oxide abundance in lunar minerals and glass. Oxygen production from lunar soil is a relatively fast process, occurring in a few tens of minutes. In contrast, oxygen extraction from lunar glass requires several hours.^[26]

Human oxygen consumption depends on physical activity and is affected by diet and also gravity. A commonly assumed round number for CO₂-production of humans of low to moderate physical activity assumes 2.2 kilograms (4.9 lb) CO₂ being exhaled per person per day. In themicrogravity-environment of theInternational Space Station this value can be as low as 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) per person per day.^[30] If one conservatively assumes that onemole of oxygen is consumed per mole of carbon dioxide produced (this ratio holds true forglucose but less oxygen is consumed per unit of carbon dioxide produced if fat or protein are the source of metabolic energy) 2.2 kg of carbon dioxide produced are equivalent to 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb) of oxygen consumed. The yearly oxygen need of a human would thus be roughly 584 kilograms (1,287 lb) and per the above-mentioned energy requirements about 1.3-2.6 kilowatts would be constantly required per person to produce this amount of oxygen from lunar rocks. For comparison the averageper person electricity consumption in the US in 2022 was 12,809 kWh (46,110 MJ) or about 1,462 Watts.

Cumulative evidence from several orbiters strongly indicate that water ice is present on the surface at the Moon poles, but mostly on the south pole region.^[31][32] However, results from these datasets are not always correlated.^[33][34] It has been determined that the cumulative area of permanently shadowed lunar surface is 13,361 km² in the northern hemisphere and 17,698 km² in the southern hemisphere, giving a total area of 31,059 km².^[1] The extent to which any or all of these permanently shadowed areas contain water ice and other volatiles is not currently known, so more data is needed about lunar ice deposits, its distribution, concentration, quantity, disposition, depth, geotechnical properties and any other characteristics necessary to design and develop extraction and processing systems.^[34][35] The intentional impact of theLCROSS orbiter into the craterCabeus was monitored to analyze the resulting debris plume, and it was concluded that the water ice must be in the form of small (< ~10 cm), discrete pieces of ice distributed throughout the regolith, or as a thin coating on ice grains.^[36] This, coupled with monostatic radar observations, suggest that the water ice present in the permanently shadowed regions of lunar polar craters is unlikely to be present in the form of thick, pure ice deposits.^[36]

Water may have been delivered to the Moon over geological timescales by the regular bombardment of water-bearingcomets,asteroids andmeteoroids^[37] or continuously producedin situ by the hydrogen ions (protons) of thesolar wind impacting oxygen-bearing minerals.^[1][38]

Thelunar south pole features a region with crater rims exposed to near constant solar illumination, where the craters' interior are permanently shaded from sunlight, allowing for natural trapping and collection of water ice that could be mined in the future.

Water molecules (H
₂O) can be broken down to form molecular hydrogen (H
₂) and molecular oxygen (O
₂) to be used as rocket bi-propellant or produce compounds formetallurgic and chemical production processes.^[3] Just the production of propellant, was estimated by a joint panel of industry, government and academic experts, identified a near-term annual demand of 450 metric tons of lunar-derived propellant equating to 2,450 metric tons of processed lunar water, generating US$2.4 billion of revenue annually.^[25]

Slopes on the lunar surface that face the Moon's poles show a higher concentration of hydrogen. This is because pole facing slopes have less exposure to sunlight that will cause vaporization of hydrogen. Additionally, slopes closer to the Moon's poles show a higher concentration of hydrogen of about 45 ppmw. There are various theories to explain the presence of hydrogen on the Moon. Water, which contains hydrogen, could have been deposited on the Moon by comets and asteroids. Additionally,solar winds interacting with compounds on the lunar surface may have led to the formation of hydrogen-bearing compounds such as hydroxyl and water.^[39] The solar wind implantsprotons on the regolith, forming a protonated atom, which is a chemical compound ofhydrogen (H). Although bound hydrogen is plentiful, questions remain about how much of it diffuses into the subsurface, escapes into space or diffuses into cold traps.^[40] Hydrogen would be needed for propellant production, and it has a multitude of industrial uses. For example, hydrogen can be used for the production of oxygen by hydrogen reduction ofilmenite.^[41][42][43]

Iron (Fe) is abundant in all mare basalts (~14–17% per weight) but is mostly locked into silicate minerals (i.e.pyroxene andolivine) and into the oxide mineralilmenite in the lowlands.^[1][45] Extraction would be quite energy-demanding, but some prominent lunar magnetic anomalies are suspected as being due to surviving Fe-rich meteoritic debris. Only further explorationin situ will determine whether or not this interpretation is correct, and how exploitable such meteoritic debris may be.^[1] Hematite, a mineral composed of ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃), has been found on the Moon. This mineral is a product of a reaction between iron, oxygen, and liquid water. Oxygen from the Earth's atmosphere may cause this reaction as indicated by there being more hematite on the side of the Moon facing the Earth.^[46]

Free iron also exists in the regolith (0.5% by weight) naturally alloyed withnickel andcobalt and it can easily be extracted by simple magnets after grinding.^[45] This iron dust can be processed to make parts usingpowder metallurgy techniques,^[45] such asadditive manufacturing,3D printing,selective laser sintering (SLS),selective laser melting (SLM), andelectron beam melting (EBM).

Titanium (Ti) can be alloyed with iron,aluminium,vanadium, andmolybdenum, among other elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys for aerospace use. It exists almost exclusively in the mineralilmenite (FeTiO₃) in the range of 5–8% by weight.^[1] Ilmenite is the main source of titanium on earth and processes like thechloride process to extract titanium from ilmenite are well established at industrial scale. Ilmenite minerals on the moon also trap hydrogen (protons) from thesolar wind, so that processing of ilmenite will also produce hydrogen, a valuable element on the Moon.^[45] The vast flood basalts on the northwest nearside (Mare Tranquillitatis) possess some of the highest titanium contents on the Moon,^[34] with 10 times as much titanium as rocks on Earth.^[47]

Aluminum (Al) is found with a concentration in the range of 10–18% by weight, present in the mineralanorthite (CaAl
₂Si
₂O
₈),^[45] the calcium endmember of theplagioclase feldspar mineral series.^[1] Aluminum is a goodelectrical conductor, and atomized aluminum powder also makes a good solid rocket fuel when burned with oxygen.^[45] Extraction of aluminum would also require breaking downplagioclase (CaAl₂Si₂O₈).^[1] Extraction of aluminum would require large amounts of electricity, even more than on earth, because the aluminum mineralbauxite which is the basis of most aluminum production on earth does not exist on the moon as it is formed bychemical weathering involving liquid water.

Silicon (Si) is an abundant metalloid in all lunar material, with a concentration of about 20% by weight. It is of enormous importance to producesolar panel arrays for the conversion of sunlight into electricity, as well as glass, fiber glass, and a variety of useful ceramics. Achieving a very high purity for use as semi-conductor would be challenging, especially in the lunar environment.^[1] Converting silica into silicon is an energy-intensive process. On earth this is usually done viacarbothermic reduction, a process that requires carbon, an element in comparatively short supply on the moon.

Calcium (Ca) is the fourth most abundant element in the lunar highlands, present inanorthite minerals (formulaCaAl
₂Si
₂O
₈).^[45][48] Calcium oxides and calcium silicates are not only useful for ceramics, but pure calcium metal is flexible and an excellentelectrical conductor in the absence of oxygen.^[45] Anorthite is rare on the Earth^[49] but abundant on the Moon.^[45]

Calcium can also be used to fabricate silicon-basedsolar cells, requiring lunar silicon, iron, titanium oxide, calcium and aluminum.^[50]

When combined with water, lime (calcium oxide) produces significant amounts of heat.Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) meanwhile absorbs carbon dioxide which can be used as a (non-replenishing) filter. The resulting material,calcium carbonate is commonly used as a building material on earth.

Magnesium (Mg) is present in magmas and in the lunar mineralspyroxene andolivine,^[51] so it is suspected that magnesium is more abundant in the lower lunar crust.^[52] Magnesium has multiple uses asalloys for aerospace, automotive and electronics. On earth aluminum alloys are used particularly where low weight and high strength are needed, examples include airplane fuselages,high speed train carriages and the likes. Magnesium extraction from lunar rocks likewise requires large amounts of energy.

TheCompton–Belkovich Thorium Anomaly is avolcanic complex on thefar side of the Moon.^[53] It was found by agamma-ray spectrometer in 1998 and is an area of concentratedthorium, a'fertile' element.^[53][54] LikewiseKREEP has areas with severalppm of Thorium in the rock.

Rare-earth elements are used to manufacture everything from electric or hybrid vehicles,wind turbines,electronic devices and clean energy technologies.^[55][56] Despite their name, rare-earth elements are – with the exception ofpromethium – relatively plentiful inEarth's crust. However, because of theirgeochemical properties, rare-earth elements are typically dispersed and not often found concentrated inrare-earth minerals; as a result, economically exploitableore deposits are less common.^[57] Major reserves exist in China, California, India, Brazil, Australia, South Africa, and Malaysia,^[58] but China accounts for over 95% of the world's production of rare-earths.^[59] (See:Rare earth industry in China.)

Although current evidence suggests rare-earth elements are less abundant on the Moon than on Earth,^[60] NASA views the mining of rare-earth minerals as a viable lunar resource^[61] because they exhibit a wide range of industrially important optical, electrical, magnetic and catalytic properties.^[1]KREEP are parts of the lunar surface richer in potassium (the "K" stands for the element symbol)rareearthelements andPhosphorus. Potassium and phosphorus are two of the three essential plant nutrients, the third being fixed nitrogen (henceNPK fertilizer) any agricultural activity on the moon would need a supply of those elements — whether sourcedin situ or brought from elsewhere e.g. earth.

Thesolar wind has deposited more than 1 million tons ofhelium-3 (³He) on the Moon's surface.^[62] Materials on the Moon's surface contain helium-3 at concentrations estimated between 1.4 and 15parts per billion (ppb) in sunlit areas,^[1][63][64] and may contain concentrations as much as 50 ppb in permanently shadowed regions.^[65] For comparison, helium-3 in the Earth's atmosphere occurs at 7.2 parts per trillion (ppt).

Since 1986^[66] proposals to exploit the lunarregolith and use the helium-3 fornuclear fusion have been presented.^[61] Although as of 2020, functioning experimental nuclear fusion reactors have existed for decades^[67][68] – none of them has yet provided electricity commercially.^[69][70] Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process large amounts of regolith. Over 150 tons of regolith must be processed to obtain 1 gram (0.035 oz) of helium 3.^[71] China has begun theChinese Lunar Exploration Program for exploring the Moon and is investigating the prospect of lunar mining, specifically looking for theisotopehelium-3 for use as an energy source on Earth.^[72] Not all authors think the extraterrestrial extraction of helium-3 is feasible,^[69] and even if it was possible to extract helium-3 from the Moon, no usefulfusion power reactor has produced more energy output than the electrical energy input.^[69][70] However, on 13 December 2022, the United States Department of Energy announced that the National Ignition Facility "conducted the first controlled fusion experiment in history to reach this milestone, also known as scientific energy breakeven, meaning it produced more energy from fusion than the laser energy used to drive it."^[73] The downside remains that Helium-3 is a limited lunar resource that can be exhausted once mined.^[10]

Carbon (C) would be required for the production of lunarsteel, but it is present inlunar regolith in trace amounts (82 ppm^[74]), contributed by thesolar wind and micrometeorite impacts.^[75] Due to extremely low temperatures, permanently shadowed regions of the Moon's poles have cold traps which possibly contain solid carbon dioxide.^[76] The presence of carbon is mostly due to solar wind carbon implanted in bulk regolith. Carbon is present in carbon-bearing ices at the lunar poles in concentrations as high as 20% by weight. However, most carbon-bearing ices have a 0–3% by weight carbon concentration. Carbon-bearing compounds that could exist include carbon monoxide (CO), ethylene (C₂H₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methanol (CH₃OH), methane (CH₄), carbonyl sulfide (OCS), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and toluene (C₇H₈). These compounds form roughly 5000 ppm of elemental carbon in soil samples brought back from the Moon. These polar regions contain C, H, and O which can serve as propellant sources formethalox spacecraft.^[77]

Nitrogen (N) was measured from soil samples brought back to Earth, and it exists as trace amounts at less than 5 ppm.^[78] It was found as isotopes¹⁴N,¹⁵N, and¹⁶N.^[78][79] As much as 87% of nitrogen found in lunar regolith may come from non-solar sources (not from theSun) or from other planets. Comets and meteorites contribute less than ~10% of nitrogen from non-solar sources.^[80] Carbon and fixed nitrogen would be required for farming activities within a sealedbiosphere.Air on earth is about 78.08% nitrogen by volume.

Developing a lunar economy will require a significant amount of infrastructure on the lunar surface, which will rely heavily onIn situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies to develop. One of the primary requirements will be to provide construction materials to build habitats, storage bins, landing pads, roads and other infrastructure.^[81][82] Unprocessedlunar soil, also calledregolith, may be turned into usable structural components,^[83][84] through techniques such assintering, hot-pressing,liquification, the castbasalt method,^[20][85] and3D printing.^[81]Glass andglass fiber are straightforward to process on the Moon, and it was found regolith material strengths can be improved by using glass fiber, such as 70% basalt glass fiber and 30%PETG mixture.^[81] Successful tests have been performed on Earth using somelunar regolith simulants,^[86] includingMLS-1 andMLS-2.^[87]

Thelunar soil, although it poses a problem for any mechanical moving parts, can be mixed withcarbon nanotubes andepoxies in the construction oftelescope mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.^[88][89][90] Several craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold, a favorable environment forinfrared telescopes.^[91]

Some proposals suggest to build a lunar base on the surface using modules brought from Earth, and covering them withlunar soil. The lunar soil is composed of a blend ofsilica and iron-containing compounds that may be fused into a glass-like solid usingmicrowave radiation.^[92][93]

TheEuropean Space Agency working in 2013 with an independent architectural firm, tested a3D-printed structure that could be constructed of lunarregolith for use as a Moon base.^[94][95][96] 3D-printed lunar soil would provide both "radiation andtemperature insulation. Inside, a lightweight pressurized inflatable with the same dome shape would be the living environment for the first human Moon settlers."^[96]

In early 2014,NASA funded a small study at theUniversity of Southern California to further develop theContour Crafting 3D printing technique. Potential applications of this technology include constructing lunar structures of a material that could consist of up to 90-percentlunar material with only ten percent of the material requiringtransport from Earth.^[97] NASA is also looking at a different technique that would involve thesintering oflunar dust using low-power (1500 watt) microwave radiation. The lunar material would be bound by heating to 1,200 to 1,500 °C (2,190 to 2,730 °F), somewhat below the melting point, in order to fuse thenanoparticle dust into a solid block that isceramic-like, and would not require the transport of a binder material from Earth.^[98]

There are several models and proposals on how to exploit lunar resources, yet few of them consider sustainability.^[99] Long-term planning is required to achieve sustainability and ensure that future generations are not faced with a barren lunar wasteland by wanton practices.^{[99][100][101]} To be truly sustainable, lunar mining would have to adopt processes that do not use nor yield toxic material, and would minimize waste through recycling loops.^[99][82]

Numerous orbiters have mapped the lunar surface composition, includingClementine,LRO,LCROSS, theArtemis orbiter,SELENE,Lunar Prospector,Chandrayaan-1, andChang'e 1. TheSoviet Luna programme andApollo Program brought lunar samples back to Earth for analysis. As of 2019, a new "Moon race" is ongoing that features prospecting for lunar resources to supportcrewed bases.

In the 21st century, China'sChinese Lunar Exploration Program,^[102][103] is executing a step-wise approach to incremental technology development and scouting for resources for a crewed base, projected for the 2030s, according to Chinesestate mediaXinhua News Agency.^[104] India'sChandrayaan programme is focused in understanding thelunar water cycle first, and on mapping mineral location and concentrations from orbit andin situ. Russia'sLuna-Glob programme is planning and developing a series of landers, rovers and orbiters for prospecting and science exploration, and to eventually employin situ resource utilization (ISRU) methods with the intent to construct and operate their own crewed lunar base in the 2030s.^[105][106]

The US has been studying the Moon for decades and in 2019 it started to implement theCommercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program to support the crewedArtemis program, both aimed at scouting and exploiting lunar resources to facilitate a long-term crewed base on the Moon, and depending on the lessons learned, then move on to acrewed mission to Mars.^[107] NASA's lunarResource Prospector rover was planned to prospect for resources on a polar region of the Moon, and it was to be launched in 2022.^[108][109] The mission concept was in its pre-formulation stage, and a prototype rover was being tested when it was cancelled in April 2018.^{[110][108][109]} Its science instruments will be flown instead on several commercial lander missions contracted by NASA's CLPS program, that aims to focus on testing various lunarISRU processes by landing several payloads on multiple commercial robotic landers and rovers. The first payload contracts were awarded on February 21, 2019,^[111][112] and will fly on separate missions. The CLPS will inform and support NASA'sArtemis program, leading to a crewed lunar outpost for extended stays.^[107]

A European non-profit organization has called for a global synergistic collaboration between all space agencies and nations instead of a "Moon race"; this proposed collaborative concept is called theMoon Village.^[113] Moon Village seeks to create a vision where both international cooperation and the commercialization of space can thrive.^{[114][115][116]}

Some early private companies likeShackleton Energy Company,^[117]Deep Space Industries,Planetoid Mines,Golden Spike Company,Planetary Resources,Astrobotic Technology, andMoon Express are planning private commercial scouting and mining ventures on the Moon.^[1][118]

In 2024, an American startup called Interlune announced plans to mineHelium-3 on the Moon for export back on Earth. The first mission plans to use NASA'sCommercial Lunar Payload Services program to arrive on the Moon.^[119] In August 2025 Interlune indicated theAstrobotic FLIP rover will carry a multispectral camera they designed to search for Helium-3.^[120]

The extensivelunar maria are composed ofbasaltic lava flows. Their mineralogy is dominated by a combination of five minerals:anorthites (CaAl₂Si₂O₈),orthopyroxenes ((Mg,Fe)SiO₃),clinopyroxenes (Ca(Fe,Mg)Si₂O₆),olivines ((Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄), andilmenite (FeTiO₃),^[1][49] all abundant on the Moon.^[121] It has been proposed thatsmelters could process the basaltic lava to break it down into pure calcium, aluminium, oxygen, iron, titanium, magnesium, and silica glass.^[122] TheEuropean Space Agency has awarded funding to Metalysis in 2020 to further develop theFFC Cambridge process to extract titanium from regolith while generating oxygen as a byproduct.^[123] Raw lunar anorthite could also be used for making fiberglass and other ceramic products.^[122][45] Another proposal envisions the use offluorine brought from Earth aspotassium fluoride to separate the raw materials from the lunar rocks.^[124]

AlthoughLuna landers scattered pennants of theSoviet Union on the Moon, andUnited States flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by theApollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface as of 2025,^[125] and the international legal status of mining space resources is unclear and controversial.^[126][127]

The five treaties and agreements^[128] of international space law cover "non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and theexploitation of natural resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes."^[129]

Russia, China, and the United States are party to the 1967Outer Space Treaty (OST),^[130] which is the most widely adopted treaty, with 104 parties.^[131] The OST treaty offers imprecise guidelines to newer space activities such as lunar andasteroid mining,^[132] and it therefore remains under contention whether the extraction of resources falls within the prohibitive language of appropriation or whether the use encompasses the commercial use and exploitation. Although its applicability on exploiting natural resources remains in contention, leading experts generally agree with the position issued in 2015 by theInternational Institute of Space Law (ISSL) stating that, "in view of the absence of a clear prohibition of the taking of resources in the Outer Space Treaty, one can conclude that the use of space resources is permitted."^[133]

The 1979Moon Treaty is a proposed framework of laws to develop a regime of detailed rules and procedures for orderly resource exploitation.^[134][135] This treaty would regulate exploitation of resources if it is "governed by an international regime" of rules (Article 11.5),^[136] but there has been no consensus and the precise rules for commercial mining have not been established.^[137] The Moon Treaty was ratified by very few nations, and thus suggested to have little to no relevancy in international law.^[138][139] The last attempt to define acceptable detailed rules for exploitation, ended in June 2018, after S. Neil Hosenball, who was the NASA General Counsel and chief US negotiator for the Moon Treaty, decided that negotiation of the mining rules in the Moon Treaty should be delayed until the feasibility of exploitation of lunar resources had been established.^[140]

Seeking clearer regulatory guidelines, private companies in the US prompted the US government, and legalized space mining in 2015 by introducing the USCommercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015.^[141] Similar national legislations legalizing extraterrestrial appropriation of resources are now being replicated by other nations, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India and Russia.^{[132][142][143][144]} This has created an international legal controversy on mining rights for profit.^[142][139] A legal expert stated in 2011 that the international issues "would probably be settled during the normal course of space exploration."^[139] In April 2020, U.S. PresidentDonald Trump signed an executive order to support moon mining.^[145]

• Colonization of the Moon – Settlement on the Moon
• Exploration of the Moon – Missions to the Moon
• Geology of the Moon – Structure and composition of the Moon
• In situ resource utilization

• Mining in space
• Natural resources
• Exploration of the Moon
• Space colonization
• Industry in space
• Self-sustainability
• Space manufacturing

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