Until thepartitions at the end of the 18th century, Lublin was an importantroyal city of the Kingdom of Poland. Its delegates, alikenobles, had the right to participate in theroyal election. In 1578, Lublin was chosen as the seat of theCrown Tribunal, the highestappealcourt in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and for centuries, the city has been flourishing as a centre of culture and higher learning.
Kraków Gate in the Old Town is among the city's most recognisable landmarks.
Archaeological finds indicate a long presence of cultures in the area. A complex of settlements started to develop on the future site of Lublin and in its environs in the sixth to seventh centuries. Remains of settlements dating back to the sixth century were discovered in the centre of today's Lublin on Czwartek ("Thursday") Hill.
Theearly Middle Ages were marked by an intensified settlement of people, particularly in the areas along river valleys. The settlements were centred around the stronghold on Old Town Hill, which was likely one of the main centres of theLendians, aLechitic tribe. When the tribalstronghold was destroyed in the 10th century, the centre shifted to the northeast, to a new stronghold above Czechówka valley and, after the mid-12th century, to Castle Hill.
At least two churches are presumed to have existed in Lublin in the early medieval period. One of them was most probably erected on Czwartek Hill during the rule ofCasimir the Restorer in the 11th century.[14] The castle became the seat of acastellan, first mentioned in historical sources from 1224, but was quite possibly present from the start of the 12th or even 10th century. The oldest historical document mentioning Lublin dates from 1198, so the name must have come into general use some time earlier.[14]
Lublin Castle – (2022). Linocut on paper byPaweł Brodzisz, 37 x 47 cm
The location of Lublin at the eastern borders of the Polish lands gave it military significance. During the first half of the 13th century, Lublin was a target of attacks byMongols,Tatars,Ruthenians, andLithuanians, which resulted in its destruction.[14] It was also ruled byKingdom of Galicia–Volhynia between 1289 and 1302.[14] Lublin was founded as a town byWładysław I the Elbow-high or between 1258 and 1279 during the rule of the princeBolesław V the Chaste.[14]Casimir III the Great, appreciating the site's strategic importance, built a masonry castle in 1341 and encircled the city with defensive walls.[15] From 1326, if not earlier, the stronghold on Castle Hill included a chapel in honor of the Holy Trinity. A stone church dating to 1335–1370 exists to this day.[14]
In 1392, the city received an important trade privilege from the kingWładysław II Jagiełło. With the coming of peace between Poland and Lithuania, it developed into a trade centre, handling a large portion of commerce between the countries. In 1474, the area around Lublin was carved out ofSandomierz Voivodeship and combined to form theLublin Voivodeship, the third voivodeship of Lesser Poland.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, the town grew rapidly. The largest trade fairs of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were held in Lublin. In the 16th century, the parliaments (Sejm) of the Kingdom of Poland were held in Lublin several times. On 26 June 1569, one of the most important proclaimed theUnion of Lublin, which united Poland andLithuania. Lublin as one of the most influential cities[14] of the state enjoyed voting rights during theroyal elections in Poland.
Since the second half of the 16th century,Protestant Reformation movements devolved in Lublin, and a large congregation ofPolish Brethren was present in the city. One of Poland's most important Jewish communities was established in Lublin around this time.[14] Jews established a widely respected yeshiva, Jewish hospital, synagogue,cemetery, and education centre (kahal) and built the Grodzka Gate (known as the Jewish Gate) in the historic district. Jews were a vital part of the city's life until theHolocaust, during which they were relocated byNazi Germany to the infamousLublin Ghetto and ultimately murdered.[14]
The yeshiva became a centre of learning ofTalmud andKabbalah, leading the city to be called "the JewishOxford".[14] In 1567, therosh yeshiva (headmaster) received the title of rector from the king along with rights and privileges equal to those of the heads of Polish universities.
The city declined due to the disastrousDeluge, when it was invaded byRusso-Cossack forces in 1655, andSweden in 1656.
19th-century drawing of the Lublin Old Town by Adam Lerue
At the beginning of the 19th century, new squares, streets, and public buildings were built. In 1877, a railway connection to Warsaw andKovel andLublin Station were constructed, spurring industrial development. Lublin's population grew from 28,900 in 1873 to 50,150 in 1897 (including 24,000 Jews).[16]
Russian rule ended in 1915, when the city was occupied by German and Austro-Hungarian armies. After the defeat of theCentral Powers in 1918, theProvisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland—the first government of independent Poland—operated in Lublin for a short time. In the interwar years, the city continued to modernise and its population grew; important industrial enterprises were established, including the first aviation factory in Poland, thePlage i Laśkiewicz works, later nationalised as theLWS factory. TheCatholic University of Lublin was founded in 1918.
In 1921, Roman Catholics constituted 58.9% of the city's population, with Jews at 39.5%. In 1931, 63.7% of the inhabitants were Roman Catholic and 34.7% Jewish.[17]
On 20 July 1931a violent tornado carved a path of destruction through the city, destroying dozens of structures in downtown and killing six people. This tornado is officially rated F4 on theFujita scale; however, the Polish Weather Service estimated winds at 246 to 324 mph (396 to 521 km/h), potentially ranking it as an F5.[18]
German and Soviet troops in Lublin during the invasion of Poland in September 1939
In early September 1939, during the joint German-Sovietinvasion of Poland, which startedWorld War II, the Polish government evacuated a portion of the Polishgold reserve from Warsaw to Lublin, and then further east toŁuck,[19] before the city wasoccupied by Germany, and found itself in the newly formedGeneral Government territory. The Polish population became a target of severe Nazi persecutions focusing onintelligentsia and Polish Jews. In November 1939, during theIntelligenzaktion, the Germans carried out mass arrests of hundreds of Poles, including teachers, judges, lawyers, engineers, priests, lecturers of the local theological seminary, and lecturers and students of theCatholic University of Lublin,[20] which the occupiers closed down.[20] Arrested Poles were held in a prison established in the Lublin Castle, and many were afterwards deported toconcentration camps.[20]
On 23–25 December 1939, the Germans carried out massacres of 31 Poles in several locations in Lublin.[21] Among the victims were lawyers, professors, school principals,starosts ofLublin andLubartów counties and other well-known and respected citizens of the region.[21] In January and February 1940, the occupiers arrested 23Capuchin friars and 43Jesuit friars.[22] Persecution of Polish intelligentsia was continued with theAB-Aktion. On 24 June 1940, the Germans carried out mass arrests of over 800 Poles in Lublin, who were then imprisoned in the castle, along with dozens of Poles who were arrested at the same time in other towns in the region, includingBiała Podlaska,Chełm,Puławy.[23] Many of the prisoners were then deported to theSachsenhausen andAuschwitz concentration camps, while around 500 Poles were murdered infive large massacres carried out in the present-day district ofRury in 1940.[24] Among the victims of the massacres were both men and women: doctors, engineers, local officials, lawyers, judges, activists, military officers, parliamentarians,Polish resistance members, policemen, teachers and school and university students.[23]
Monument and cemetery inRury where the Germansmassacred around 500 Poles in 1940
An attempt to "Germanise" the city led to an influx of the ethnicVolksdeutsche, increasing the number of German minority from 10–15% in 1939 to 20–25%. Near Lublin, the so-called "reservation" for the Jews was built based on the idea of racial segregation known as the "Nisko or Lublin Plan".[25]
The Germans established and operated aBaudienstforced labour camp forPoles in Lublin.[26] Many Poles from or associated with Lublin, including 94 lecturers, alumni and students of the Catholic University of Lublin were murdered by the Soviets in the largeKatyn massacre in April–May 1940.[27]
The site of the formerMajdanek concentration camp, located on the outskirts of Lublin
The Jewish population was forced into the newly establishedLublin Ghetto nearPodzamcze. The city served as headquarters forOperation Reinhardt, the main German effort to exterminate all Jews in occupied Poland. The majority of the ghetto inmates, about 26,000 people, were deported to theBełżec extermination camp between 17 March and 11 April 1942. The remainder were moved to facilities around theMajdanek concentration camp established at the outskirts of the city. Almost all of Lublin's Jews were murdered during theHolocaust in Poland. The secretPolish Council to Aid Jews "Żegota", established by thePolish resistance movement operated in the city.[28] There are also known cases of local Polish men and women, who were captured and sent to either forced labour or concentration camps by the Germans forsheltering and aiding Jews.[29] Poles who saved Jews in other places in the region were also temporarily imprisoned in the local castle, before being sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp.[30]
After the war, some survivors emerged from hiding with theChristian rescuers or returned from the Soviet Union, and re-established a small Jewish community in the city, but their numbers were insignificant. Most survivors left Poland for Israel, the United States and other countries.[31]
In the first years of the occupation, manyexpelled Poles fromGdańsk and German-annexed Pomerania were deported to Lublin,[32] and later on, in 1943, around 9,000expelled Poles from the nearby Zamojszczyzna region were brought to Lublin and imprisoned in the Majdanek concentration camp and in a transit camp at Krochmalna Street; many were afterwards deported to forced labour in Germany.[33] In August 1943, thanks to efforts of the PolishRada Główna Opiekuńcza charity organisation, around 2,200 people were released from those two camps.[33] Many of the released people, including hundreds ofkidnapped Polish children, were extremely exhausted or sick, and were taken to local hospitals,[33] which quickly became overcrowded.[34] Many exhausted children died soon.[34] Lublin pharmacists and residents organized help for the children, and after leaving the hospital, the people were taken in by the inhabitants of the surrounding villages, which resulted in anepidemic typhus outbreak, which caused many deaths among the population.[34]
On 24 July 1944, the city was taken by theSoviet Army and became the temporary headquarters of theSoviet-controlled communistPolish Committee of National Liberation established by Joseph Stalin, which was to serve as the basis for a puppet government. The Soviets carried out arrests of Polish resistance members, including the regional delegate of thePolish government-in-exile, Władysław Cholewa, and the commander of the regional branch of theHome Army, Colonel Kazimierz Tumidajski, who was eventually killed in Russian captivity in 1947.[35] The capital of new Poland was moved to Warsaw in January 1945 after the Soviet westward offensive.
In the postwar years, Lublin continued to grow, tripling its population and greatly expanding its area. A considerable scientific and research base was established around the newly foundedMaria Curie-Skłodowska University. A large automotive factory,Fabryka Samochodów Ciężarowych (FSC), was built in the city. In 2017, the city was awarded theEurope Prize by theParliamentary Assembly of theCouncil of Europe for having made exceptional efforts to spread the ideal of European unity.[36]
Lublin lies in easternPoland on theLublin Upland. TheBystrzyca [pl] river, a tributary of theWieprz river, passes through the city and divides it into two parts: western, with a more varied relief withloess gorges, and eastern, which is flat. In the southern part of the city there is an artificial Zemborzyce Lake created by damming Bystrzyca.
The area of the city is 147 km2. The highest point lies at a height of 235.0 m (771.0 ft) and the lowest point at a height of 163.6 m (537 ft).
The Lublin region is a part of eastern Poland, which has benefited less from the economic transformation after 1989 than regions of Poland located closer toWestern Europe. Despite the fact that Lublin is one of the closest neighbour cities for Warsaw, the investment inflow in services from the Polish capital has secured a steady growth due to relatively fast connection, while external investments are progressing, enabling nearby satellite municipalityŚwidnik for large-scale industrial investments.[citation needed]
Lublin is a regional centre of IT companies. Asseco Business Solutions S.A., eLeader Sp z o.o., CompuGroup Medical Polska Sp. z o.o., Abak-Soft Sp. z o.o. and others have their headquarters here. Other companies (for exampleComarch S.A., Britenet Sp. z o.o., Simple S.A.,Asseco Poland S.A.) outsourced to Lublin, to take advantage of the educated specialists. There is a visible growth in professionals eager to work in Lublin,[citation needed] due to reasons like quality of life, culture management, the environment, improving connection to Warsaw, levels of education, or financial, because of usually higher operating margins of global organisations present in the area.[citation needed]
The large car factoryFabryka Samochodów Ciężarowych (FSC) was acquired by theSouth KoreanDaewoo conglomerate in the early 1990s. With Daewoo's financial troubles in 1998 related to theAsian financial crisis, the production at FSC practically collapsed and the factory entered bankruptcy.[53] Efforts to restart its van production succeeded when the engine supplier bought the company to keep its prime market.[citation needed] With the decline of Lublin as a regional industrial centre, the city's economy has been reoriented toward service industries. Currently, the largest employer is theMaria Curie-Sklodowska University.
The price of land and investment costs are lower than in western Poland. However, the Lublin area has to be one of the main beneficiaries of the EU development funds.[54] Jerzy Kwiecinski, the deputy secretary of state in the Ministry for Regional Development at the Conference of the Ministry for Regional Development (Poland in the European Union — new possibilities for foreign investors) said:
In the immediate financial outlook, between 2007 and 2013, we will be the largest beneficiaries of the EU — every fifth Euro will be spent in Poland. In total, we will have at our disposal 120 billion EUR, assigned exclusively for post-development activities. This sum will be an enormous boost for our country.[55]
In September 2007, the prime minister signed a bill creating a special economic investment zone in Lublin that offers tax incentives. It is part of "Park Mielec" — the European Economic Development area.[56] At least 13 large companies had declared their wish to invest here, e.g., Carrefour, Comarch, Safo, Asseco, Aliplast, Herbapol,Modern-Expo, andPerła Browary Lubelskie.[57][58] At the same time, the energy conglomerate, Polska Grupa Energetyczna, which will build Poland's first nuclear power station, is to have its main offices in Lublin.
Modern shopping centers built in Lublin like Tarasy Zamkowe (Castle Terraces), Lublin Plaza, Galeria Olimp, Galeria Gala, the largest shopping mall in the city, covering 33,500 square meters of area. Similar investments are planned for the near future such as Park Felin (Felicity) and a new underground gallery ("Alchemy") between and beneath Świętoduska and Lubartowska Streets.[59]
The localTVP station,TVP3 Lublin, broadcasts from a 104 m (341 ft)-tall concrete television tower.[60] The station put its first program on the air in 1985. In recent years it contributed programming toTVP3 channel and laterTVP Info.
The radio stations airing from Lublin include Radio 'eR – 87.9 FM', Radio 'Eska Lublin' – 103.6 FM,Radio Lublin (regional station of thePolish Radio) – 102.2 FM, [ Radio Centrum (university radio station)] – 98.2 FM, Radio 'Free' (city station of the Polish Radio) – 89,9 FM, and Radio 'Złote Przeboje' (Golden Hits) Lublin – 95.6 FM.
Local newspapers includeKurier Lubelski daily, regional partner of the national newspaperDziennik Wschodni daily,Gazeta Wyborcza [ Lublin Edition] daily (regional supplement to the national newspaperGazeta Wyborcza),[ Metro] (daily, free), andNasze Miasto Lublin weekly (free).
TheLublin Airport (Port Lotniczy Lublin) (IATA: LUZ) is located about 10 km (6.2 miles) SE of Lublin. With approximately 8 destinations and over 450 000 passengers served in 2018, it is the biggest airport in Eastern Poland. There is a direct train and bus link from the airport to downtown.
Lublin Metropolitan Station is aimed at connecting metropolitan, regional, and national transport.Lublin hasone of three trolleybus systems in Poland.
Lublin is located at the intersection of expresswaysS12,S17, andS19.Expressway S17 between Lublin and Warsaw was completed in 2020. S19 between Lublin and Rzeszów was largely finished in 2022. The rest of the planned expressway network around the city, that will be built in the coming years, consists of S12 to the east in the directionChełm, S19 north towardsBiałystok, and S17 southeast towardsZamość. The expressway bypass of Lublin allows transit traffic to avoid the city centre.
Long-distance buses depart from near the Castle in the Old Town and serve most of the same destinations as the rail network.
Lublin is the largest city in easternPoland and serves as an important regional cultural capital. Since then, many important international events have taken place here, involving international artists, researchers and politicians.
Lublin's Old Town shares several traditions with Lesser Poland, mostly the dialect and historic architecture that brings a unique ambience comparable withKraków. It is, however, a distinct experience, which benefits from artistic renovation, that progressed somehow slower and more modestly focusing more on quality and less on commercialization. Historic buildings, including ruined townhouses that await for new owners, create a unique atmosphere of the renaissance city. Lublin's Old Town has cobbled, narrow streets and mostly medieval layout and design. Many venues around Old Town enjoy an architecture applicable for restaurants, art hotels, pubs galleries, and clubs. Apart from entertainment, the area houses small businesses and prestigious offices.
There are several historic churches in the Old Town, including theHoly Trinity Chapel inLublin Castle with the frescos, that are a mixture of Roman Catholic motifs with eastern Byzantine styles, reinforcing how the city connects the west with the east. Other important churches are the Late Gothic Virgin Mary Victorious Church, Renaissance Dominican Basilica and Bernardine church as well asBaroqueSt. John the Baptist Cathedral.
The premier museum in the city is theNational Museum of Lublin, one of the oldest and largest museums of Eastern Poland. It is located in the Lublin castle and contains some castle's interiors, like theHoly Trinity Chapel with its frescoes in the Byzantine style. The museum permanent collection include also many Polish and foreign painting from the 17th to 20th century, as well as the gallery of paintings byTamara de Lempicka.
Other museums include also the Museum of the History of the City of Lublin, the Museum of the Eastern Territories of the Old Polish Republic, the Józef Czechowicz Museum, the Under the clock Martyrdom Museum and the Museum of Housing Estates on the Słowacki Housing Estate.
Important museum is also theMajdanek State Museum in the former Majdanek Nazi concentration and extermination camp. In 2011 it was visited by 121,404 visitors.[63]
Lublin is a city with a proactive approach towards filmmaking industry. The city is featured in some notable films, and that includeOscar-winningThe Reader which was partially filmed at the NaziMajdanek concentration camp.[64]
In 2008, Lublin collaborated with UkrainianLviv, to film and distribute promotional materials which painted both cities as attractive to the filmmaking industry. Films were handed out between filmmakers present atCannes Festival.[65] This was sponsored by theEuropean Union. There are numerous movie theatres in Lublin including a few multiplexes, i.e. Cinema City and Multikino chains, also smaller venues like Cinema Bajka, Cinema Chatka Żaka, Cinema Perla, Cinema Grazyna and Cinema Medyk.
The Lublin Film Fund has been active since 2009, actively caring for cultivation of cinematographic talents in Lublin and promoting the city by provision of financial and organizational support. Numerous feature films have been partially financed by the fund, including Kamienie na Szaniec, Panie Dulskie, Volta and award-winning Carte Blanche.[66]
Juliusz Osterwa TheatreThe Centre for the Meeting of Cultures and Teatralny Square, view from the Lublin Conference Center
There are many cultural organizations in Lublin, either municipal, governmental and/or non-governmental. Among the popular venues are municipal theatres and playhouses such as:
Musical Theatre in Lublin –Teatr Muzyczny w Lublinie, opera, operetta, musical, ballet
There are numerous art galleries in Lublin; some are run by private owners, and some are municipal, government, NGO, or associations' venues. TheLabyrinth Gallery (formerly "BWA") is the Artistic Exhibitions Office –Biuro Wystaw
In the Old Town and the immediate surrounding, over 100 unique restaurants, fine-dining venues, cafes, pubs, clubs and other catering outlets are located. In the latter half of the 2010s, the robust international community gathered around Lublin's Medical University has impacted the growth of restaurants offering various world cuisines.
Catering to students, who account for 35% of the population, the city offers a vibrant music and nightclub scene[67] Lublin has many theatres and museums and a professional orchestra, the Lublin Philharmonic.[68][69][70][71]
Litewski SquareKrakowskie Przedmieście, one of the main streets of the historic city centerA street fair in the Old Town440th anniversary of theUnion of Lublin
Lublin aims to be known as the Polish Capital of Festivals.[14] Most years, Lublin increases the number of festivals held in the city. The most significant of them include:
Carnaval Sztukmistrzów – held in last days of July, is the largest new circus festival in Poland. Name of the Carnival is inspired by the character ofThe Magician of Lublin, from a novel byIsaac Bashevis Singer.[72]
Night of Culture (Noc Kultury) – usually held on the first Saturday night of June. Consisting of hundreds of events spanning the city, it is a cultural manifestation of Lublin's potential. Admission to all events is free.[74]
OpenCity Festival – outdoor performances festival. International artists and performers create art installations in public places in Lublin.[75]
Night of Museums – Lublin's culture institutions become open to visitors at night.
The Jagiellonian Fair (Jarmark Jagielloński) – held in late August, is a chance to meet numerous artists, artisans, and craftspeople from Central and Eastern Europe.
St Nicolas Day International Festival of Folk Music (Mikołajki Folkowe)[76] – the oldest folk music festival in Poland, held in the first decade of December[77]
East Of Culture – Different Sounds Art'n'Music Festival (Wschód Kultury – Inne Brzmienia Art'n'Music Festival), held in late June, is a meeting of world-class artists that represent various nationalities and practise diverse music styles.[78]
Lubelskie Dni Kultury Studenckiej – Lublin's Days of Student Culture – an annual students' holiday. Usually celebrated for about three weeks between May and June. Due to the city's large student population, the festival in Lublin is the longest in Poland.[citation needed]
Lublin. Miasto Poezji – Poetry Festival organised byOśrodek "Brama Grodzka – Teatr NN" and Polish Literature Institute ofCatholic University in Lublin.
Noc z Czechowiczem –A Night with Czechowicz – a walking tour, inspired by the "Poem on the City of Lublin" written byJózef Czechowicz. It is held on the first full moon in July, and is organised by Ośrodek "Brama Grodzka – Teatr NN".
Najstarsze Pieśni Europy –The oldest songs of Europe – Festival of Muzyka Kresów Foundation
Future Shorts – World Short Film Label
International Lublin Dance Festival – Międzynarodowe Spotkania Teatrów Tańca – one of the leading dance art festivals in Europe[79]
International Theatre Festival "Confrontations" – Międzynarodowy Festiwal Teatralny "Konfrontacje"[80]
Ukraine in the Center of Lublin – Ukraina w Centrum Lublina[81] – held in November since 2008, is a showcase of contemporary Ukrainian culture and a space for Polish-Ukrainian intercultural dialogue.
"Falkon" – Fantasy and Science Fiction Festival – Ogólnopolski Festiwal Fantastyki Falkon – held in November, is one of the biggest fantasy conventions in Poland.[82]
Polish Students' Theatre Festival – Studencki Ogólnopolski Festiwal Teatralny Kontestacje
International Folk Dance Festival – Międzynarodowe Spotkania Folklorystyczne im. Ignacego Wachowiaka
Scena Młodych –Youth Scene, music festival
Zwierciadła –Mirrors – High School Theatres Revision
Zaduszki Jazzowe –Jazz Souls' Day – which take place inDominican Order Monastery
Wyższa Szkoła Nauk Społecznych z siedzibą w Lublinie
Wyższa Szkoła Przedsiębiorczości i Administracji
Vincent Pol University in Lublin
It is home to one of the oldest still-functioning schools in Poland,The Staszic School, which was established in 1586. The school has many notable alumni, such asBolesław Prus, one of the most influential Polish writers and novelists, andLesław Paga, the co-founder of theWarsaw Stock Exchange.
Lublin is the capital of the province calledLublin Voivodeship, a province (voivodeship) created in 1999. The city is a separate urbangmina and city county (powiat).
Lublin is governed by the municipal legislature known as thecity council (Rada Miasta) and the city's mayor (Prezydent Miasta). The city council is made up of 31 councillors directly elected by the city's inhabitants. The remit of the council and president extends to all areas of municipal policy and development planning, up to and including the development of local infrastructure, transport, and planning permission. The city's current mayor isKrzysztof Żuk, who has served in this position since 2010.[83]
Lublin has an official flag, a 5:8 rectangle divided into three horizontal stripes: white (top), green (narrow, middle), and red (bottom). In the central part, there is the coat of arms of Lublin. It is also allowed to hang the flag in the form of a vertical ribbon: then white should be on the left side or near the spar.
In 2023, following the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the city of Lublin was honoured by President of UkraineVolodymyr Zelensky who granted it the title of "City-Rescuer" in recognition of its humanitarian and financial assistance to Ukraine and the country'swar refugees.[89][90]
Lublin is one of five global locations[92] with aportal, a public art project showing video feed of different places in rotation. The portal locations connected to Lublin are[93]:
^"Główny Urząd Statystyczny" [Central Statistical Office] (in Polish). To search: Select "Miejscowości (SIMC)" tab, select "fragment (min. 3 znaki)" (minimum 3 characters), enter town name in the field below, click "WYSZUKAJ" (Search).
^Sadkowski, Konrad (1995).Church, nation and state in Poland: Catholicism and national identity formation in the Lublin region, 1918–1939.University of Michigan. pp. 85–86.
^Wardzyńska, Maria (2009). "Obozy niemieckie na okupowanych terenach polskich".Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (in Polish). Vol. 4, no. 99. IPN. p. 29.ISSN1641-9561.
^Pawelec, Marek (2010). ""Lista Katyńska" KUL".Przegląd Uniwersytecki (in Polish). Vol. 4, no. 126. Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II. p. 8.ISSN0866-9961.
^Datner, Szymon (1968).Las sprawiedliwych (in Polish). Warszawa: Książka i Wiedza. p. 69.
^Rejestr faktów represji na obywatelach polskich za pomoc ludności żydowskiej w okresie II wojny światowej (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN. 2014. pp. 64, 250, 271.
^Rejestr faktów represji na obywatelach polskich za pomoc ludności żydowskiej w okresie II wojny światowej, pp. 80, 255, 263
^Helena Ziemba née Herszenborn; Irena Gewerc-Gottlieb (2001). "Ścieżki Pamięci, Żydowskie Miasto w Lublinie – Losy, Miejsca, Historia (Path of Memory. Jewish Town in Lublin - Fate, Places, History)".1. Mój Lublin Szczęśliwy i Nieszczęśliwy; 2. W Getcie i Kryjówce w Lublinie(PDF file, direct download 4.9 MB) (in Polish). Rishon LeZion, Israel; Lublin, Poland: Ośrodek "Brama Grodzka - Teatr NN" & Towarzystwo Przyjaźni Polsko-Izraelskiej w Lublinie. pp. 24, 27, 29, 30.
^Drywa, Danuta (2020). "Germanizacja dzieci i młodzieży polskiej na Pomorzu Gdańskim z uwzględnieniem roli obozu koncentracyjnego Stutthof". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.).Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish).Kraków:Uniwersytet Jagielloński,Biblioteka Jagiellońska. p. 184.
^abcGajderowicz, Magdalena; Skrzyniarz, Ryszard (2020). "Dzieci Zamojszczyzny w obozie na Majdanku (w wybranych aktach archiwalnych i relacjach)". In Kostkiewicz, Janina (ed.).Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945) (in Polish). Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, Biblioteka Jagiellońska. pp. 144–145.
^Grabowski, Waldemar (2002). "Na drodze do powstania".Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej (in Polish). No. 8-9 (19-20). IPN. p. 42.ISSN1641-9561.
^"Miesięczna suma opadu".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved20 January 2022.
^"Liczba dni z opadem >= 0,1 mm".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved20 January 2022.
^"Średnia grubość pokrywy śnieżnej".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved20 January 2022.
^"Średnia suma usłonecznienia (h)".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved20 January 2022.
The list includes the 107 urban municipalities governed by acity mayor (prezydent miasta) instead of a town mayor (burmistrz) ·Cities with powiat rights are initalics · Voivodeship cities are inbold
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