Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), also known asSaint Louis, wasKing of France from 1226 until his death in 1270. He is widely recognized as the most distinguished of theDirect Capetians. Following the death of his father,Louis VIII, he wascrowned in Reims at the age of 12. His mother,Blanche of Castile, effectively ruled the kingdom asregent until he came of age, and continued to serve as his trusted adviser until her death. During his formative years, Blanche successfully confronted rebelliousvassals and championed the Capetian cause in theAlbigensian Crusade, which had been ongoing for the past two decades.
As an adult, Louis IX grappled with persistent conflicts involving some of the most influential nobles in his kingdom, includingHugh X of Lusignan andPeter I of Brittany. Concurrently, England'sHenry III sought to reclaim theAngevin continental holdings, only to be decisively defeated at theBattle of Taillebourg. Louis expanded his territory by annexing several provinces, including parts ofAquitaine,Maine, andProvence. Keeping a promise he made while praying for recovery from a grave illness, Louis led the ill-fatedSeventh andEighth Crusades against theMuslim dynasties that controlled North Africa,Egypt, andthe Holy Land. He was captured and ransomed during the Seventh Crusade, and later succumbed todysentery during the Eighth Crusade. His son,Philip III, succeeded him.
Louis instigated significant reforms in theFrench legal system, creating aroyal justice mechanism that allowed petitioners to appeal judgments directly to the monarch. He abolishedtrials by ordeal, endeavored to terminate private wars, and incorporated thepresumption of innocence intocriminal proceedings. To implement his new legal framework, he established the offices ofprovosts andbailiffs. Louis IX's reign is often marked as an economic and political zenith formedieval France, and he held immense respect throughoutChristendom. His reputation as a fair and judicious ruler led to his being solicited to mediate disputes beyond his own kingdom.[1][2] Louis IX expanded upon the work of his predecessors, especially his grandfatherPhilip II of France and reformed the administrative institutions of the French crown.[3] He re-introduced, and expanded the scope of, theenquêtes commissioned to investigate governmental abuses and provide monetary restitutions for the crown.
Louis's admirers through the centuries have celebrated him as the quintessential Christian monarch. His skill as a knight and engaging manner with the public contributed to his popularity. Saint Louis was extremely pious, earning the moniker of a "monk king".[2][4] Louis was a staunch Christian and rigorously enforcedCatholic orthodoxy. He enacted harsh laws againstblasphemy,[5] and he also launched actions againstFrance's Jewish population, including ordering them to wear a yellow badge of shame, as well as the notorious burning of theTalmud following theDisputation of Paris. Louis IX holds the distinction of being the solecanonized king of France and is also the direct ancestor of all subsequent French kings.[6]
Much of what is known of Louis's life comes fromJean de Joinville's famousLife of Saint Louis. Joinville was a close friend, confidant, and counselor to the king. He participated as a witness in the papal inquest into Louis's life that resulted in his canonization in 1297 byPope Boniface VIII. Two other important biographies were written by the king's confessor,Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and his chaplain,William of Chartres. While several individuals wrote biographies in the decades following the king's death, only Jean of Joinville, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and William of Chartres wrote from personal knowledge of the king and of the events they describe, and all three are biased favorably to the king. The fourth important source of information is William of Saint-Parthus's 19th-century biography,[7] which he wrote using material from the papal inquest mentioned above.
Louis was born on 25 April 1214 atPoissy, near Paris, the son of then-Prince Louis "the Lion" (laterLouis VIII of France) andBlanche of Castile,[8], during the reign of his paternal grandfather,Philip II "Augustus" of France, and was baptized in Poissy inLa Collégiale Notre-Dame church. His maternal grandfather was KingAlfonso VIII of Castile.Tutors of Blanche's choosing taught himLatin, public speaking, writing, military arts, and government.[9] His father succeeded to the throne upon Philip II's death in 1223, when then-Prince Louis was nine years old.[10]
Louis was 12 years old when his father died on 8 November 1226. His coronation as king took place on 29 November 1226 atReims Cathedral, officiated by thebishop of Soissons.[11] Louis's mother, Queen Blanche, ruled France asregent during his minority.[12] Louis's mother instilled in him her devout Christianity. She is once recorded to have said:[13]
I love you, my dear son, as much as a mother can love her child; but I would rather see you dead at my feet than that you should ever commit a mortal sin.
On 27 May 1234, Louis marriedMargaret of Provence (1221–1295); she was crowned queen in Sens Cathedral the next day.[15] Margaret was the sister ofEleanor of Provence, who later marriedHenry III of England. The new Queen Margaret's religious zeal made her a well-suited partner for the king, and they are attested to have got on well, enjoying riding together, reading, and listening to music. His closeness to Margaret aroused jealousy in his mother, who tried to keep the couple apart as much as she could.[16]
While his contemporaries viewed Louis's reign as co-rule between him and his mother, historians generally believe Louis began ruling personally in 1234, with his mother then assuming a more advisory role.[1] She continued to have a strong influence on the king until her death in 1252.[12][17]
Louis's patronage of the arts inspired much innovation inGothic art andarchitecture. The style of his court was influential throughout Europe, both because of artwork purchased from Parisian masters for export, and by the marriage of the king's daughters and other female relatives to foreigners. They became emissaries of Parisian models and styles elsewhere. Louis's personal chapel, theSainte-Chapelle in Paris, which was known for its intricate stained-glass windows, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere. Louis is believed to have ordered the production of theMorgan Bible and theArsenal Bible, both deluxeilluminated manuscripts.
During the so-called "golden century of Saint Louis", the kingdom of France was at its height in Europe, both politically and economically. Saint Louis was regarded as"primus inter pares", first among equals, among the kings and rulers of the continent. He commanded the largest army and ruled the largest and wealthiest kingdom, the European centre of arts and intellectual thought at the time. The foundations for the notable college of theology, later known as theSorbonne, were laid in Paris about the year 1257.[18]
Seal of Louis IX, legend:lvdovicvs di gra(tia) francorvm rex ("Louis, by the grace of God, king of theFranks")
The prestige and respect felt by Europeans for King Louis IX were due more to the appeal of his personality than to military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the Christian prince and embodied the whole ofChristendom in his person. His reputation for fairness and even saintliness was already well established while he was alive, and on many occasions he was chosen as an arbiter in quarrels among the rulers of Europe.[1]
Shortly before 1256,Enguerrand IV, Lord of Coucy, arrested and without trial hanged three young squires of Laon, whom he accused of poaching in his forest. In 1256 Louis had the lord arrested and brought to theLouvre by his sergeants. Enguerrand demanded judgment by his peers and trial by battle, which the king refused because he thought it obsolete. Enguerrand was tried, sentenced, and ordered to pay 12,000 livres. Part of the money was to pay formasses to be said in perpetuity for the souls of the men he had hanged.
In 1258, Louis andJames I of Aragon signed theTreaty of Corbeil to end areas of contention between them. By this treaty, Louis renounced his feudal overlordship over theCounty of Barcelona andRoussillon, which was held by the King of Aragon. James in turn renounced his feudal overlordship over several counties in southern France, includingProvence andLanguedoc. In 1259 Louis signed theTreaty of Paris, by whichHenry III of England was confirmed in his possession of territories in southwestern France, and Louis received the provinces ofAnjou, Normandy (Normandie),Poitou, Maine, andTouraine.[12]
The perception of Louis IX by his contemporaries as the exemplary Christian prince was reinforced by his religious zeal. Louis was an extremely devout Catholic, and he built theSainte-Chapelle ("Holy Chapel"),[1] located within the royal palace complex (now theParis Hall of Justice), on theÎle de la Cité in the centre of Paris. TheSainte Chapelle, a prime example of theRayonnant style ofGothic architecture, was erected as a shrine for thecrown of thorns and a fragment of theTrue Cross, preciousrelics of thePassion of Christ. He acquired these in 1239–41 from EmperorBaldwin II of theLatin Empire ofConstantinople by agreeing to pay off Baldwin's debt to the Venetian merchant Niccolo Quirino, for which Baldwin had pledged the Crown of Thorns as collateral.[19] Louis IX paid the exorbitant sum of 135,000livres to clear the debt.
In 1230, the king forbade all forms ofusury, defined at the time as any taking of interest and therefore covering most banking activities. Louis used these anti-usury laws to extract funds from Jewish and Lombard moneylenders, with the hopes that it would help pay for a future crusade.[18] Louis also oversaw theDisputation of Paris in 1240, in which Paris's Jewish leaders were imprisoned and forced to admit to anti-Christian passages in the Talmud, the major source of Jewish commentaries on the Bible and religious law. As a result of the disputation, PopeGregory IX declared that all copies of the Talmud should be seized and destroyed. In 1242, Louis ordered the burning of 12,000 copies of the Talmud, along with other important Jewish books and scripture.[20] The edict against the Talmud was eventually overturned by Gregory IX's successor,Innocent IV.[6]
Louis also expanded the scope of theInquisition in France. He set the punishment forblasphemy tomutilation of the tongue and lips.[5] The area most affected by this expansion was southern France, where theCathar sect had been strongest. The rate of confiscation of property from the Cathars and others reached its highest levels in the years before his first crusade and slowed upon his return to France in 1254.
In 1250, Louis headed a crusade to Egypt and was taken prisoner. During his captivity, he recited theDivine Office every day. After his release against ransom, he visited the Holy Land before returning to France.[13] In these deeds, Louis IX tried to fulfill what he considered the duty of France as "the eldest daughter of the Church" (la fille aînée de l'Église), a tradition of protector of the Church going back to theFranks andCharlemagne, who had been crowned byPope Leo III in Rome in 800. The kings of France were known in the Church by the title "most Christian king" (Rex Christianissimus).
Louis founded many hospitals and houses: the House of theFilles-Dieu for reformed prostitutes; theQuinze-Vingt for 300 blind men (1254), and hospitals at Pontoise, Vernon, and Compiègne.[21]
St. Louis installed a house of theTrinitarian Order atFontainebleau, his chateau and estate near Paris. He chose Trinitarians as his chaplains and was accompanied by them on his crusades. In his spiritual testament he wrote, "My dearest son, you should permit yourself to be tormented by every kind of martyrdom before you would allow yourself to commit a mortal sin."[13]
Louis authored and sent theEnseignements, or teachings, to his sonPhilip III. The letter outlined how Philip should follow the example of Jesus Christ in order to be a moral leader.[22] The letter is estimated to have been written in 1267, three years before Louis's death.[23]
Detail of stained glass window, depicting St. Louis, created by Leopold Lobin
Louis IX's most enduring domestic achievements came through his comprehensive reform of the French legal system. He created mechanisms that allowed subjects to appeal judicial decisions directly to the monarch, establishing a precedent for royal courts as the ultimate arbiters of justice in the kingdom. One of his most significant legal innovations was the abolition of trials by ordeal and combat, practices that had determined guilt or innocence through physical tests rather than evidence. Louis was the second European monarch afterFrederick II, Holy Roman Emperor to outlaw trial by ordeal, and in its place, Louis introduced the groundbreaking concept of presumption of innocence in criminal proceedings, fundamentally altering how justice was administered throughout the kingdom. These reforms collectively established a more rational and equitable legal framework that would influence French jurisprudence for centuries.
Prior to his departure on crusade in 1248, Louis had sentenquêteurs across the kingdom to receive complaints about royal injustice, investigate those claims, and provide restitutions to deserving petitioners. Based on the evidence of administrative corruption and malfeasance compiled in the enquêteurs' reports, as well as the disastrous failure of the crusade itself, in the last sixteen years of his reign Louis initiated a sweeping series of reforms.[3] This reform program was highlighted by the promulgation in December 1254 of what is known as the Great Reform Ordinance, a wide-ranging set of ethical principles and practical rules concerning the conduct and moral integrity of royal officers includingbaillis andenquêteurs. To ensure that the ordinance's precepts were upheld and enforced, the crown simultaneously relied upon a broad array of preventive strategies, intensive supervision, and accountability procedures, chief among them the reintroduction of the "enquêtes".[24] A 1261 inquest into the conduct of Mathieu de Beaune, bailli ofVermandois, illustrates Louis's commitment to accountability: testimonies from 247 witnesses were collected to investigate corruption allegations, showcasing the crown's rigorous oversight mechanisms and its mission to create a more transparent judiciary.[3] Such measures reduced localized abuses of power and standardized legal proceedings across the realm.
Perhaps most emblematic of Louis's commitment to justice was his personal involvement in judicial proceedings. According to many local legends and contemporary accounts, the king frequently sat under a great oak tree in the forest of Vincennes near Paris, where he would personally hear cases and render judgements.[25]
A copy of Thomas Aquinas's "Summa theologica", widely regarded as the epitome of medieval, scholastic, and Christian theology
The reign of Louis IX coincided with a remarkable intellectual flourishing in France, particularly in Paris, which emerged as Europe's pre-eminent center of learning during Louis's reign. Scholars likeWilliam of Auvergne played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual landscape of Europe during his reign. William of Auvergne's monumental Magisterium divinale (1223–1240) attempted to reconcileAristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine, particularly challenges posed by Arabic commentaries on Aristotle. He was greatly favored by the crown and also served as a member of the regency council that ruled France in absence of the king during the seventh crusade.[26]
Perhaps greatest of all the intellectual minds active in France during Louis's reign was the theologianThomas Aquinas. Aquinas's association with Paris represents one of the most fruitful collaborations between scholasticism and intellectual endeavor. Though Italian by birth, Aquinas conducted his most important work at theUniversity of Paris, where he held the Dominican chair in theology twice (1256–1259 and 1269–1272). His Summa Theologica, widely considered to be the epitome of medieval scholastic theology, synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology in an unprecedented systematic framework at a time when Aristotle was just regaining popularity in Europe.[27]
Another major scholastic figure, the German DominicanAlbertus Magnus, was also active at the University of Paris from 1245 to 1248. His experimental approach to natural sciences, exemplified by botanical studies and mineralogical investigations, prefigured later scientific methods while maintaining a theological framework.[28] Louis IX's support for Dominican institutions facilitated Albertus's work, which helped transform Paris into the primary center for Aristotelian studies.
The construction ofSainte-Chapelle was inspired by earlier Carolingian royal chapels, most notably the Palatine Chapel ofCharlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle (modern-dayAachen). Before embarking on this ambitious project, Louis had already built a royal chapel at theChâteau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1238. This earlier, single-level chapel's plan would be adapted for Sainte-Chapelle, though on a much grander scale.[29]
The primary motivation for building Sainte-Chapelle was to create a suitable sanctuary for Louis IX's collection of precious Christian relics including thecrown of thorns. The foundation of the Chapelle was laid in 1241 and construction proceeded rapidly into the decade. On April 26, 1248 the Saint-Chapelle was consecrated as a private royal chapel for King Louis IX.[29]
The completed structure was remarkable in size, measuring 36 meters (118 ft) long, 17 meters (56 ft) wide, and 42.5 meters (139 ft) high - dimensions that rivaled contemporary Gothic cathedrals. The chapel featured two distinct levels of equal size but different purposes, the upper level housed the sacred relics and was reserved exclusively for the royal family and their guests, while the lower level served courtiers, servants, and palace
The Seventh Crusade was formally inaugurated by Pope Innocent IV’s issuance of the bull Terra Sancta Christi in 1245, which called for a renewed effort to secure Jerusalem by targeting Egypt, the economic and military linchpin of the Ayyubid Sultanate.[30] This papal directive built upon a century of crusading precedent, particularly the Fifth Crusade (1217–1221), which had similarly sought to leverage control over the Nile Delta to pressure Muslim powers in Syria and Palestine. Louis and his followers landed in Egypt on 4 or 5 June 1249 and began their campaign with the capture of the port ofDamietta.[31][32] This attack caused some disruption in the MuslimAyyubid empire, especially as the current sultan,Al-Malik as-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, was on his deathbed. However, the march of Europeans from Damietta towardCairo through theNile River Delta went slowly. The seasonal rising of the Nile and the summer heat made it impossible for them to advance.[18] During this time, the Ayyubid sultan died, and the sultan's wifeShajar al-Durr set in motion a shift in power that would make her Queen and eventually result in the rule of the Egyptian army of theMamluks.
On 8 February 1250, Louis lost his army at theBattle of Fariskur and was captured by the Egyptians. His release was eventually negotiated in return for a ransom of 400,000bezants or about 200,000livres tournois, a little less than the French crown's annual income,[33] and the surrender of the city of Damietta.[34]
Upon his liberation from captivity in Egypt, Louis IX devoted four years to fortifying theKingdom of Jerusalem, focusing his efforts inAcre,Caesarea, andJaffa. He used his resources to aid the Crusaders in reconstructing their defenses[35] and actively engaged in diplomatic endeavors with theAyyubid dynasty. In the spring of 1254, Louis and his remaining forces made their return to France.[31]
Louis maintained regular correspondence and envoy exchanges with theMongol rulers of his era. During his first crusade in 1248, he received envoys fromEljigidei, the Mongol military leader stationed inArmenia andPersia.[36] Eljigidei proposed that Louis should launch an offensive in Egypt while he targetedBaghdad to prevent the unification of the Muslim forces in Egypt and Syria. In response, Louis sentAndré de Longjumeau, aDominican priest, as a delegate to theKhaganGüyük Khan (r. 1246–1248) inMongolia. However, Güyük's death preceded the arrival of the emissary, and his widow and acting regent,Oghul Qaimish, rejected the diplomatic proposition.[37]
Louis sent another representative, theFranciscan missionary and explorerWilliam of Rubruck, to the Mongol court. Rubruck visited the KhaganMöngke (r. 1251–1259) in Mongolia and spent several years there. In 1259,Berke, the leader of theGolden Horde, demanded Louis's submission.[38] In contrast, Mongol emperors Möngke andKhubilai's brother, theIlkhanHulegu, sent a letter to the French king, soliciting his military aid; this letter, however, never reached France.[39]
Louis IX sailing for France, from Chroniques de France, 14th century
Louis IX returned to France in 1254 after spending four years in the Holy Land following his release from captivity during the failedSeventh Crusade. He set out from Acre on April 24, 1254, and arrived back in France in July of that year. The kingdom had been ruled by a regency in his absence, headed by the king's motherBlanche of Castile until her death in November 1252.
Jean de Joinville's narrative of the king's return home from crusade in July 1254 is marked by two fateful meetings. Upon disembarking atHyères, forty miles east along the coast fromMarseille, Louis and his entourage were met almost immediately by the abbot of Cluny, who presented him and the queen with two palfreys that Joinville estimated to be worth, by the standards of the first decade of the 1300s, five hundredlivre tournois. The next day, the abbot returned to tell the king of his troubles, to which the king patiently and attentively listened. After the abbot's departure, Joinville posed to Louis whether the gift of the palfreys had made the king more favorable to the abbot's petition, and, when Louis replied in the affirmative, advised him that those men entrusted with administering the king's justice should be forbidden from accepting gifts, lest they "listen more willingly and with greater attention to those who gave them."[40]
While still at Hyères, the king heard of a renowned Franciscan named Hugues de Digne active in the area and, ever the enthusiast for sermons, requested that the friar attend the court so that Louis might hear him preach.[41]
The now-ruined Peyrepertuse Castle, one of the strategic strongholds ceded by James I of Aragon in accordance with Treaty of Corbeil (1258)
After returning to France in 1254, Louis IX prioritized diplomatic settlements to resolve many longstanding territorial disputes and stabilize his kingdom's borders. In 1258, he concluded theTreaty of Corbeil withJames I of Aragon. According to the terms of this treaty, Louis IX renounced ancient French claims of feudal overlordship over Catalonia (the Hispanic March), while James had to renounce all claims to several territories in southern France, includingLanguedoc, Provence, Toulouse, Quercy, and others, except for Montpellier and Carlat. Isabella, daughter of James I, was also betrothed to Philip, son of Louis IX securing peace with Aragon.
In 1259, Louis concluded the Treaty of Paris withHenry III of England. Henry III formally renounced all claims to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou-territories lost by his predecessors.In return, Louis IX recognized Henry III as Duke of Aquitaine and his vassal forGuyenne and Gascony, with Henry retaining control over these regions but under French suzerainty.[42] The Treaty of Paris had already positioned Louis as a respected mediator in European affairs, and in January 1264, Henry III formally requested Louis IX to arbitrate the dispute between the crown and the barons. Louis convened the Mise of Amiens, a judgement that annulled the Provisions of Oxford and sided decisively with Henry, rejecting the baronial reforms.[43] This ruling emboldened Henry's position but also deepened the conflict, as the barons, led bySimon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, refused to accept the decision, which led to renewed warfare after 1264.
Louis IX's diplomatic reach extended across Western Europe and even into the Near East and Central Asia, earning him a reputation as one of the foremost arbitrators of his age. The king maintained diplomatic relations with the Mongols even after returning to France and in 1260, as the Mongols underHulagu Khan sacked Baghdad and advanced into Syria, Louis maintained correspondence withIlkhanate leaders, hoping to coordinate attacks against their mutualMamluk adversaries.[25]
King Louis IX also maintained diplomatic relations with EmperorFrederick II and frequently corresponded with him, but their relationship was far from cordial. The contemporary Arab historianIbn Wasil mentions a letter that the emperor sent to Louis, after the latter's release from captivity, in order "to remind him of his (own) sound advice and the consequences of his obstinacy and recalcitrance, and to upbraid him for it". There is no other record of this letter, but Frederick did write to KingFerdinand III of Castile blaming the pope for a disaster that could have been avoided; in this letter, the emperor links "papal cunning" to "the fate of our beloved friend, the illustrious King of France".[44] Frederick II also allegedly sent secret letters and envoys to SultanAs-Salih Ayyub of Egypt, warning him of Louis IX's impending crusade and offering to delay or disrupt the French king's campaign.[45]
King Louis IX enjoyed unparalleled prestige throughoutChristendom and was respected even by his opponents as he was considered to be the 'Most Christian King' (rexChristianissimus). This title adopted by the French kings was later confirmed by the pope, while further papal concessions cemented France as the "eldest daughter of the church".[46] The king's influence was rooted not in military dominance but in widespread respect for his fairness, personal integrity, and reputation as a Christian ruler. European monarchs and nobles frequently sought his judgment in disputes, viewing him as an impartial and principled mediator.
Death of Saint Louis: On 25 August 1270, Saint Louis dies in his tent, ornamented with royal symbols, nearTunis. Illuminated byJean Fouquet,Grandes Chroniques de France (1455–1460).
In a parliament held at Paris, 24 March 1267, Louis and his three sons "took the cross". On hearing the reports of the missionaries, Louis resolved to land atTunis, and he ordered his younger brother, Charles of Anjou, to join him there. The crusaders, among whom was the English princeEdward Longshanks, landed atCarthage 17 July 1270, but disease broke out in the camp.[35]
Louis died atTunis on 25 August 1270, during an epidemic of dysentery that swept through his army.[47][48][49] According to European custom, his body was subjected to the process known asmos Teutonicus prior to most of his remains being returned to France.[50] Louis was succeeded as King of France by his son,Philip III.
Louis's bones were carried overland in a lengthy processional across Sicily, Italy, the Alps, and France, until they were interred in the royal necropolis atSaint-Denis in May 1271.[52] Charles and Philip III later dispersed a number ofrelics to promote Louis's veneration.[53]
Robert (1256 – 7 February 1317), Count of Clermont,[8] marriedBeatrice of Burgundy. The French crown devolved upon his male-line descendant,Henry IV (the firstBourbon king), when the legitimate male line of Philip III died out in 1589.
Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297;[57] he is the only French king to be declared asaint.[58] Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch.[57]
He is honoured as co-patron of theThird Order of St. Francis, which claims him as a member of the Order. When he became king, over a hundred poor people were served meals in his house on ordinary days. Often the king served these guests himself. His acts of charity, coupled with his devout religious practices, gave rise to the legend that he joined the Third Order of St. Francis, though it is unlikely that he ever actually joined the order.[9]
A statue of St. Louis by the sculptor John Donoghue stands on the roofline of theNew York State Appellate Division Court at 27 Madison Avenue in New York City.
Jules Verne, "To the Sun?/Off on a Comet!" A comet takes several bits of the Earth away when it grazes the Earth. Some people, taken up at the same time, find the Tomb of Saint Louis is one of the bits, as they explore the comet.
Dante Alighieri,Divina Commedia. It is likely that Dante hides the figure of the Saint King behind the Veltro, the Messo di Dio, the Veglio di Creta and the "515", which is a duplicate of the Messo. This is a trinitarian representation to oppose to the analogous representation of his grandsonPhilip IV the Fair, as theBeast from the Sea. The idea came to Dante from the transposition of the Revelation of St. John in the history, studied from the abbot and theologianJoachim of Fiore.[89]
Theodore de Bainville, poem, "La Ballade des Pendus (Le Verger du Roi Louis)"; musicalized by Georges Brassens.
Arnaud du Prat, Paris canon; Rhymed, chanted office for St. Louis, 1290, Sens Bib. Mun. MS6, and elsewhere.
Marc-Antoine Charpentier,Motet for Saint Louis, H.320, for 1 voice, 2 treble instruments (?) and continuo 1675.
Marc-Antoine Charpentier, MotetIn honorem santi Ludovici Regis Galliae canticum tribus vocibus cum symphonia, H.323, for 3 voices, 2 treble instruments and continuo (1678 ?)
Marc-Antoine Charpentier, MotetIn honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae, H.332, for 3 voices, 2 treble instruments and continuo 1683)
Marc-Antoine Charpentier, MotetIn honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae canticum, H.365 & H.365 a, for soloists, chorus, woodwinds, strings and continuo (1690)
Marc-Antoine Charpentier, MotetIn honorem Sancti Ludovici regis Galliae, H.418, for soloists, chorus, 2 flutes, 2 violins and continuo (1692–93)
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^William Chester Jordan,Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade: A Study in Rulership (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp. 35–64, 135–181; and Jean Richard,Saint Louis, roi d'une France féodale, soutien de la Terre sainte (Paris: Fayard, 1983), ed. and abridged by Simon Lloyd, trans. Jean Birrell asSaint Louis: Crusader King of France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 156–183.
^Gilson, Etienne (1991).The Spirit of Mediaeval Philosophy. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 490.ISBN978-0-268-01740-8.
^Harran, Marilyn J. "Albertus Magnus, Saint." World Book Student. World Book, 2013. Web. Feb. 27, 2013.
^abAlain Erlande-Brandenburg, the Ste Chapelle (Paris-Buildings) in Grove Encyclopedia of Art
^Rudolf Hiestand, 'The Military Orders and Papal Crusading Propaganda', in Victor Mallia-Milanes, The Military Orders Volume III: History and Heritage (London: Routledge, 2017), p. 155.
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—— (2017). "A Border Policy? Louis IX and the Spanish Connection". In Liang, Yuen-Gen; Rodriguez, Jarbel (eds.).Authority and Spectacle in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Essays in Honor of Teofilo F. Ruiz. Routledge.OL33569507M.
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