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History and overview |
TheLotus Sūtra (Sanskrit:Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram,lit. 'Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma';traditional Chinese:法華經;simplified Chinese:法华经;pinyin:Fǎhuá jīng;lit. 'Dharma Flower Sutra')[1] is one of the most influential and venerated BuddhistMahāyāna sūtras. It is the mainscripture on which the ChineseTiantai and its derivative schools--the JapaneseTendai andNichiren, KoreanCheontae, and VietnameseThiên Thai schools ofBuddhism--were established. It is also influential for otherEast Asian Buddhist schools, such asChan andZen. According to the BritishBuddhologistPaul Williams, "For many Buddhists inEast Asia since early times, theLotus Sūtra contains the final teaching ofShakyamuni Buddha—complete and sufficient for salvation."[2] The American BuddhologistDonald S. Lopez Jr. writes that theLotus Sūtra "is arguably the most famous of allBuddhist texts," presenting "a radical re-vision of both the Buddhist path and of the person of theBuddha."[3]
Two central teachings of theLotus Sūtra have been very influential forMahāyāna Buddhism. The first is the doctrine of theOne Vehicle, which says that allBuddhist paths and practices lead toBuddhahood and so they are all actually "skillful means" of reaching Buddhahood. The second is the idea that the lifespan of theBuddha is immeasurable, and that therefore, he did not really pass on intofinal Nirvana (he only appeared to do so asupāya), but is still active teaching theDharma.[note 1]
The earliest knownSanskrit title for the sūtra is theSaddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra, which can be translated as "the Scripture of theLotus Blossom of the FineDharma" or "The Discourse on the White Lotus of the True Doctrine."[4][5] In English, the shortened formLotus Sūtra is more common.
Translations of this title intoAsian languages include the following:[6]
The Japanese Buddhist priestNichiren (1222–1282) regarded the title as the summary of theLotus Sūtra's teachings. The chanting of the title is the basic religious practice he advocated during his lifetime.[7][8]
TheLotus Sūtra is known for its extensive instruction onskillful means (Sanskrit:upāyakauśalya orupāya, Ch.:fangbian, Jp.:hōben), which refers to how Buddhas teach in many ways adapted to the needs of their disciples. This concept of Buddhist pedagogical strategies is often explained throughparables orallegories.[9] In theLotus Sūtra, the many 'skillful' or 'expedient' practices and teachings taught by the Buddha (including the "three vehicles" to awakening) are revealed to all be part of the "One Vehicle" (Skt.:ekayāna, Ch.:一乘;yīchéng), the supreme and all encompassing path that leads to Buddhahood.[9][10] Moreover, this single vehicle is none other than the myriad skillful means which are its expressions and modes. As the Buddha says in the sūtra, "seek as you will in all ten directions, there is no other vehicle, apart from theupāyas of the Buddhas."[9]
The One Vehicle is associated with theMahāyāna ("Great Vehicle"), which is a path that rejects the cutting off ofrebirth (the individualnirvana or "extinction" of theBuddhist saint) and seeks to heroically remain in the world ofsuffering to help others attainawakening, all while working towards complete Buddhahood.[9] In theLotus Sūtra, the One Vehicle encompasses many different and seemingly contradictory teachings because the Buddha's great compassion and wish to save all beings (bodhicitta) led him to adapt the teaching to suit many different kinds of people and contexts.[11] As the Buddha states in theLotus Sūtra: "Ever since I became a Buddha, I have used a variety of causal explanations and a variety of parables to teach and preach, and countless skillful means to lead living beings."[12]
TheLotus Sūtra declares also all other teachings are subservient to, propagated by and in the service of the ultimate truth of the "One Buddha–Vehicle", a goal that is available to all.[13][14] This can and has been interpreted by some figures in an exclusive and hierarchical sense, as meaning that all other Buddhist teachings are to be dispensed with.[9] However, Reeves and other interpreters understand the one vehicle in a more pluralist and inclusive sense which embraces and reconciles all Buddhist teachings and practices. Some have even applied this universalism to non-Buddhist teachings.[9][14]
Reeves also notes that the theme of unity and difference also includes other ideas besides the One Vehicle. According to Reeves "on more than one occasion, for example, the many worlds of the universe are brought together into a unity." Similarly, though there are said to be many Buddhas, they are all closely connected with Shakyamuni and they all teach the same thing.[15]
Another important teaching of theLotus Sūtra is that all beings can become Buddhas.[18] The sūtra sees the awakening of a Buddha as the only and ultimate goal, and it claims that "of any who hear the dharma, none shall fail to achieve Buddhahood."[9] Numerous figures in the sūtra receive predictions of future Buddhahood, including the ultimate Buddhist villainDevadatta.[19][20][21] In chapter 10, the Buddha points out that all sorts of people will become Buddhas, including monks, nuns, laypeople, along with numerous non-human beings likenagas.[22] Even those, who practice only simple forms of devotion, such as paying respect to the Buddha, or drawing a picture of the Buddha, are assured of their futureBuddhahood.[23]
According to Gene Reeves, this teaching also encourages this potential for Buddhahood in all beings, even in enemies as well as "to realize our own capacity to be a Buddha for someone else."[18] According to Reeves, the story of the little Dragon Girl promotes the idea that women can also become Buddhas just like monks.[24] Reeves sees this as an inclusive message which "affirms the equality of everyone and seeks to provide an understanding of Buddha-dharma that excludes no one."[24]
Although the termBuddha-nature (Buddhadhatu) is not mentioned in theLotus Sūtra, Japanese scholarsHajime Nakamura and Akira Hirakawa suggest that the concept is implicitly present in the text.[25][26] An Indian commentary (attributed toVasubandhu), interprets theLotus Sūtra as a teaching of Buddha-nature and later East Asian commentaries tended to adopt this view.[27][28] Chinese commentators pointed to the story of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging in chapter 20 as evidence that the Lotus taught Buddha-nature implicitly.[9]
Another key concept introduced by theLotus Sūtra is the idea thatthe Buddha's lifespan is immeasurable and that he is still present in the world. The text states that the Buddha actually achieved Buddhahood innumerableeons ago, but remains in the world to help teach beings the Dharma time and again. The lifespan of the Buddha is said to be incalculable, beyond imagination, "ever enduring, never perishing."[29] The biography andapparent death (paranirvana, "final nirvana") of Sakyamuni Buddha (i.e., the Buddha Gautama) are portrayed as an illusory manifestation, a skillful means meant to teach others.[30][31][32][29]
The idea that the physical death of a Buddha is the termination of their life is graphically refuted by the appearance of another Buddha,Prabhūtaratna, who has taught theLotus countless aeons ago. TheLotus Sūtra indicates that not only can multiple Buddhas exist in the same time and place (which contrasts with earlier Indian views), but that there are countless streams of Buddhas extending throughout all of space and through unquantifiable eons of time. TheLotus Sūtra illustrates a sense of timelessness and the inconceivable, often using large numbers and measurements of space and time.[9][33]
Jacqueline Stone writes that theLotus Sūtra affirms the view that the Buddha constantly abides in our present world. As theLotus states in chapter 16, the Buddha remains "constantly dwelling in this Sahā world sphere, preaching the dharma, teaching and converting."[34] According to Stone, the sūtra has also been interpreted as promoting the idea that the Buddha's realm (Buddhakṣetra) "is in some senseimmanent in the present world, although radically different from our ordinary experience of being free from decay, danger and suffering." In this view, which is very influential inChinese Buddhism andJapanese Buddhism, "this world and the pure land are not, ultimately, separate places but are in factnon dual."[34]
According to Gene Reeves, theLotus Sūtra also teaches that the Buddha has many embodiments and these are the countless bodhisattva disciples. These bodhisattvas choose to remain in the world to save all beings and to keep the teaching alive. For Reeves "the fantastically long life of the Buddha, in other words, is at least partly a function of and dependent on his being embodied in others."[15]
The sūtra is presented in the form of a drama consisting of severalmythological scenes.[35] According to British writerSangharakshita, the Lotus uses the entire cosmos for its stage, employs a multitude of mythological beings as actors and "speaks almost exclusively in the language of images."[36]
According to Gene Reeves the first part of the sūtra "elucidates a unifying truth of the universe (the One Vehicle of the Wonderful Dharma)", the second part "sheds light on the everlasting personal life of the Buddha (Everlasting Original Buddha); and the third part emphasizes the actual activities of human beings (the bodhisattva way)."[37]
The following chapter by chapter overview is based on the expanded Chinese version of Kumārajīva, the most widely translated version into other languages.[38] Other versions have different chapter divisions.
During a gathering atVulture Peak,Shakyamuni Buddha goes into astate of deep meditative absorption (samadhi), the earth shakes in six ways, and he brings forth a ray of light from the tuft of hair in between his eyebrows (ūrṇākośa) which illuminates thousands ofBuddha-fields in the east.[note 2][40][41]Maitreya wonders what this means, and thebodhisattvaMañjuśrī states that he has seen this miracle long ago when he was a student of the Buddha Candrasūryapradīpa. He then says that the Buddha is about to expound his ultimate teaching,The White Lotus of the Good Dharma.[42][43][44] In fact, Mañjuśrī says this sūtra was taught by other Buddhas innumerable times in the past.[45]
Modern scholars suggest that chapters 2–9 contain the original form of the text. In Chapter 2 the Buddha declares that there ultimately exists only one path, one vehicle, the Buddha vehicle (Buddhayāna).[46] This concept is set forth in detail in chapters 3–9, usingparables, narratives of previous existences and prophecies of awakening.[47]
Chapter 2: Skillful Means
Shakyamuni explains his use of skillful means to adapt his teachings according to the capacities of his audience.[48] He also says that his ways are inconceivable.Śāripūtra asks the Buddha to explain this and five thousand monks leave because they do not want to hear this teaching.[44] The Buddha then reveals that the three vehicles (yānas) are really just skillful means, and that they are in reality the One Vehicle (ekayāna).[44] He says that the ultimate purpose of the Buddhas is to cause sentient beings "to obtain the insight of the Buddha" and "to enter the way into the insight of the Buddha."[49][50][51]
The Buddha also states the various benefits for those who preserve the sūtra, and that those who perform even the simplest forms of devotion will eventually reach Buddhahood. The Buddha also states that those who reject and insult theLotus Sūtra (and those who teach it) will be reborn in hell.[44]
Chapter 3: The Parableof the Burning House
The Buddha prophesies that in a future eon (kalpa) Śāripūtra will become a Buddha called Padmaprabha. Śāripūtra is happy to have heard this new teaching, but says that some in the assembly are confused.[44] The Buddha responds with theparable of the burning house, in which a father (symbolizing the Buddha) uses the promise of various toy carts to get his children (sentient beings) out of a burning house (symbolizingsamsara).[52] Once they are outside, he gives them all one large cart to travel in instead. This symbolizes how the Buddha uses thethree vehicles, as skillful means to liberate all beings – even though there is only one single vehicle to Buddhahood, i.e. the Mahāyāna. The sūtra emphasizes that this is not a lie, but a compassionate salvific act.[53][54][44]
Chapter 4: Belief and Understanding
Four senior disciples includingMahākāśyapa address the Buddha.[55] They tell the parable of the poor son and his rich father (sometimes called the "prodigal son" parable). This man left home and became a beggar for 50 years while his father became incredibly rich. One day the son arrives at the father's estate, but the son does not recognize his father and is afraid of such a powerful man. The father therefore sends low class people to offer him a menial job cleaning trash. For over 20 years, the father gradually leads his son to more important and better jobs, such as being the accountant for all the father's wealth. Then one day he announces his identity and the son is overjoyed. The senior disciples say that they are like the son, because initially they did not have the confidence to accept full Buddhahood, but today they are happy to accept their future Buddhahood.[56][57][44]
Chapter 5: The Parable of Medicinal Herbs
This parable says that theDharma is like a great monsoon rain that nourishes many different kinds of plants in accordance with their needs. The plants representŚrāvakas,PratyekaBuddhas, and Bodhisattvas,[58] and all beings which receive and respond to the teachings according to their respective capacities.[59] Some versions of the sūtra also contain other parables, such as one which compares the Dharma to the light of the Sun and moon, which shine equally on all. Just like that, the Buddha's wisdom shines on everyone equally. Another parable found in some versions says that just like a potter makes different types of pots from the same clay, the Buddha teaches the same One Vehicle in different forms.[44]
Chapter 6: Bestowal of Prophecy
The Buddha prophesies the future Buddhahood ofMahākāśyapa,Mahāmaudgalyāyana,Subhūti, andMahākātyāyana.[44]
Chapter 7: A Past Buddha and the Illusory City
The Buddha tells a story about a past Buddha called Mahābhijñājñānābhibhū, who reached awakening after aeons under the Bodhi tree and then taught the four noble truths and dependent origination. At the request of his sixteen sons, he then taught theLotus Sūtra for a hundred thousand eons. His sons proceeded to teach the sūtra. The Buddha then says that these sons all became Buddhas and that he is one of these.[44]
The Buddha also teaches a parable about a group of people seeking a great treasure who are tired of their journey and wish to quit. Their guide creates a magical illusory city for them to rest in and then makes it disappear.[60][61][62] The Buddha explains that the magic city represents the "Hinayana Nirvana", created merely as a rest stop by the Buddha, and the real treasure and ultimate goal is Buddhahood.[63][44]
Chapter 8: Prophecy for Five Hundred Disciples
Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīpūtra is declared by the Buddha to be the supreme teacher in his saṅgha and is given a prediction of future Buddhahood (his name will be Dharmaprabhāsa). The Buddha then gives prophecies of future Buddhahood to twelve hundred arhats. The five hundredarhats who had walked out before confess that they were ignorant in the past and attached to the inferior nirvana but now they are overjoyed since they have faith in their future Buddhahood.[44]
The arhats tell the parable of a man who has fallen asleep after drinking and whose friend sews a jewel into his garment. When he wakes up he continues a life of poverty without realizing he is really rich, he only discovers the jewel after meeting his old friend again.[64][65][66][61] The hidden jewel has been interpreted as a symbol of Buddha-nature.[67] Zimmermann noted the similarity with thenine parables in theTathāgatagarbha Sūtra that illustrate how the indwelling Buddha in sentient beings is hidden bynegative mental states.[68]
Chapter 9: Prophecies for the Learners and Adepts
Ānanda,Rāhula, and two thousand bhikṣus aspire to get a prophecy, and the Buddha predicts their future Buddhahood.[69]
Chapters ten to twenty two expound the role of thebodhisattva and the concept of the immeasurable and inconceivable lifespan andomnipresence of the Buddha.[47] The theme of propagating theLotus Sūtra which starts in chapter 10, continues in the remaining chapters.[note 3]
Chapter 10: The Dharma teachers
The Buddha states that whoever hears even just one line from the sūtra will attain Buddhahood.[44] This chapter presents the practices of teaching the sūtra which includes accepting, embracing, reading, reciting, copying, explaining, propagating it, and living in accordance with its teachings. The teachers of the Dharma (dharmabhāṇaka) are praised as the messengers of the Buddha.[71] The Buddha states that they should be honored as if they were Buddhas and that stupas should be built wherever the sūtra is taught, recited or written.[44] Someone who does not know theLotus is like digging a well and finding only dry earth, while a bodhisattva that knows theLotus is like striking water. The Buddha also says that he will send emanations to protect the teachers of the sūtra.[44]
Chapter 11: The Emergence of the Jeweled Stupa
A massive jeweledstupa (a stylized Buddhistreliquaryburial mound) rises from the earth and floats in the air.[72] Then a voice is heard from within praising theLotus Sūtra.[73] The Buddha states that another Buddha resides in the stupa,Prabhūtaratna, who attained awakening through theLotus Sūtra and made a vow to make an appearance to verify the truth of theLotus Sūtra whenever it is preached.[74][44]
Countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha in the ten directions are now summoned by the Buddha into this world, transforming it into a Pure Land. The Buddha then opens the stupa.[44] Thereafter Prabhūtaratna invites Shakyamuni to sit beside him in the jeweled stupa.[75][76] This chapter reveals the existence of multiple Buddhas at the same time as well as the idea that Buddhas can live on for countless aeons.[73] According to Donald Lopez "among the doctrinal revelations that this scene intimates is that a Buddha does not die after he passes intonirvāna."[77]
Chapter 12: Devadatta
The Buddha tells a story about how in a previous life he was a king who became the slave of arishi just so he could hear theLotus Sūtra. This rishi was none other than Devadatta, who is destined for Buddhahood in the future as the Buddha Devarāja.[44]
In another story, Mañjuśrī praises the nāga king Sāgara's daughter and says she can attain Buddhahood. The bodhisattva Prajñākūṭa is skeptical of this, and then the nāga princess appears. Śāripūtra says that women cannot attain Buddhahood. The nāga princess makes an offering to the Buddha of a precious jewel and then says she can reach Buddhahood faster than she made that offering. She then turns into a male bodhisattva and becomes a Buddha.[44] Through these stories, the Buddha teaches that everyone can become enlightened – men, women, animals, and even the most sinful murderers.[78]
Chapter 13: Encouraging Devotion
The Buddha encourages all beings to embrace the teachings of the sūtra in all times, even in the most difficult ages to come. The bodhisattvasBhaiṣajyarāja, Mahāpratibhāna and two hundred thousand others promise to teach the sūtra in the future. The Buddha prophecies that the six thousand nuns who are also present, including Mahāprajāpatī and Yaśodharā, will all become Buddhas.[79][44]
Chapter 14: Peaceful Practices
Mañjuśrī asks how a bodhisattva should spread the teaching.[80] The Buddha explains the four qualities they should cultivate to teach the sūtra. First, they should be self-controlled and correctly see the characteristics of phenomena and they should stay apart from worldly life. Secondly, they should see the emptiness of phenomena. Thirdly, they should be happy and never criticize and discourage people from enlightenment. Finally, they should have compassion for people and wish to attain Buddhahood so they may help liberate others.[44][81] Virtues such as patience, gentleness, a calm mind,wisdom andcompassion are to be cultivated.
Chapter 15: Emerging from the Earth
The bodhisattvas from other world systems say they will help the Buddha teach this sūtra here, but the Buddha says their help is not needed—he has many bodhisattvas here. Then the ground splits open and countlessbodhisattvas spring up from the earth (led byViśiṣṭacāritra,Anantacāritra,Viśuddhacāritra, andSupratiṣṭhitacāritra), ready to teach.[82][83]Maitreya asks who these bodhisattvas are since nobody has heard of them before. The Buddha affirms that he has taught all of these bodhisattvas himself in the remote past after attaining Buddhahood.[84] Maitreya then asks how this is possible, since these bodhisattvas have been training for aeons.[44]
Chapter 16: The Life Span of Tathagatha
The Buddha (Tathagatha) states that he actually attained Buddhahood countless quintillions of eons ago. He has only appeared to become awakened recently as a skillful means to teach others. The Buddha also says that he only appears to pass into final nirvāṇa, but actually he does not really do so. This is just an expedient teaching so that beings will not become complacent.[44] The Buddha then teaches the Parable of the Excellent Doctor who entices his poisoned sons into taking an antidote by feigning his death. After they hear this they are shocked and take the medicine. The doctor then reveals he is still alive. Because the Buddha uses skillful means in this way, he should not be seen as a liar, but as an intelligent teacher.[85][86][44]
Chapter 17: Merit
The Buddha explains themerit (punya) or benefits that come from listening to and believing in this teaching on the Buddha's lifespan. He says that this teaching has led countless bodhisattvas, as many as the sands of theGanges, to various levels of spiritual accomplishment. He also says that there is greater benefit in hearing and believing theLotus Sūtra than practicing the first fiveperfections for eons.[44] The Buddha states that those who have faith in this teaching will see this world as a pure land filled with bodhisattvas. Those who have faith in the sūtra have already made offerings to past Buddhas and they do not need to build stupas or temples. These beings will develop excellent qualities and attain Buddhahood. This chapter also says thatCaityas should be built to honor the Buddha.[44]
Chapter 18: Rejoicing
The Buddha states that the merit generated from rejoicing in this sūtra (or in even just a single line from it) is far greater than bringing thousands of beings to arhathood. The merits of listening to the sūtra, for even a moment, are extensively praised in this chapter.[44]
Chapter 19: Benefits of the Teacher of the Law
The Buddha praises the merits of those who are devoted to theLotus Sūtra. He states that their six sense bases (ayatanas) will become purified and develop the ability to experience the senses of billions of worlds as well as other supernatural powers.[87][44]
Chapter 20: The Bodhisattva Never Disparaging
The Buddha tells a story about a previous life when he was a bodhisattva calledSadāparibhūta ("Never-disparaging" or "Never-disrespectful") and how he treated every person he met, good or bad, with respect, always remembering that they will become Buddhas.[88] Never-disparaging experienced much ridicule and condemnation by other monastics and laypersons but he always responded by saying "I do not despise you, for you will become a Buddha."[89] He continued to teach this sūtra for many lifetimes until he reached Buddhahood.[44]
Chapter 21: Supernatural Powers of the Thus Come One
This chapter reveals that the sūtra contains all of the Buddha's secret spiritual powers. The bodhisattvas who have sprung from the earth (in chapter 15) are entrusted with the task of spreading and propagating it and they promise to do so.[90] Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna extend their tongues into the Brahmā realm, emitting numerous rays of light along with countless bodhisattvas. This miracle lasts for a hundred thousand years. Then they clear their throats and snap their fingers, which is heard in all worlds and all worlds shake. All beings in the universe are then given a vision of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. All Buddhas praise Śākyamuni for teaching theLotus. The Buddha says that the merits of teaching the sūtra is immeasurable and that any place where it is being taught or copied is a holy place.[44]
Chapter 22: Entrustment
The Buddha transmits theLotus Sūtra to all bodhisattvas in his congregation and entrusts them with its safekeeping and its propagation far and wide.[91][92][93] The Buddha Prabhūtaratna in his jeweled stupa and the countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha return to their respective Buddha-fields.[94] According to Donald Lopez, theLotus Sūtra "appears to end with Chapter Twenty-Two, when the Buddha exhorts his disciples to spread the teaching, after which they return to their abodes...scholars speculate that this was the final chapter of an earlier version of theLotus, with the last six chapters being interpolations."[95] This is the final chapter in the Sanskrit versions and the alternative Chinese translation. Shioiri suggests that an earlier version of the sūtra ended with this chapter and that chapters 23–28 were inserted later into the Sanskrit version.[96][97]
These chapters are focused on variousbodhisattvas and their deeds.[98]
Chapter 23: Former Affairs of Bodhisattva Medicine King（藥王菩薩本事品）
The Buddha tells the story of the 'Medicine King' (Bhaiṣajyarāja) bodhisattva, who, in a previous life as the bodhisattva Sarvasattvapriyadarśana, set his body on fire, lighting up many world systems for twelve years, as a supreme offering to a Buddha.[99][100][101] This chapter teaches the practice "offering the body", which involves burning a part of one's body (such as toe, finger, or a limb) as an offering.[44] The hearing and chanting of theLotus Sūtra is also said to cure diseases. The Buddha uses nine similes to declare that theLotus Sūtra is the king of all sūtras.[102]
Chapter 24: The Bodhisattva Gadgadasvara（妙音菩薩品）
Gadgadasvara ('Wonderful Voice'), a bodhisattva from a distant world, visitsVulture Peak to worship the Buddha. Gadgadasvara once made offerings of various kinds of music to the Buddha Meghadundubhisvararāja. His accumulated merits enable him to take on many different forms to propagate theLotus Sūtra.[103][97][44]
Chapter 25: The Universal Gateway Or The Universal Door of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva（觀世音菩薩普門品）
This chapter is devoted to bodhisattvaAvalokiteśvara (Skt. “Lord Who Looks Down”, Ch.Guanyin, “Regarder of the Cries of the World”), describing him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings, and rescues those who call upon his name in various forms, which was explained when Akṣayamati asksthe Buddha to elaborate on the character of the bodhisattvaAvalokiteśvara. Other names include the "Avalokiteśvara Sūtra"（觀世音經）, "Universal Gateway Chapter"（普門品）and it is often recited separately from the main sūtra.[104][105][106][98][107]
Chapter 26: Dhāraṇī（陀羅尼品）
Hariti and several bodhisattvas offer sacreddhāraṇī (magical formulas) in order to protect those who keep and recite theLotus Sūtra.[108][109][note 4]
Chapter 27: Former Affairs of King Wonderful Adornment（妙莊嚴王本事品）
This chapter tells the story of the conversion of King 'Wonderful-Adornment' by his two sons.[111][112]
Chapter 28: Encouragement of Samantabhadra（普賢菩薩勸發品）
A bodhisattva called "Universal Virtue" or "All Good" (Samantabhadra) asks the Buddha how to preserve the sūtra in the future. Samantabhadra promises to protect and guard all those who keep this sūtra in the future.[113] He says that those who uphold the sūtra will be reborn in theTrāyastriṃśa andTuṣita heavens. He also says that those who uphold this sūtra will have many good qualities and should be seen and respected as Buddhas.[44]
According to Lopez, theLotus "is clearly a work of high literary quality. Its authors are unknown, but they were likely highly educated Buddhist monks, fully at ease among the doctrines and tropes of Buddhism as it existed in India at the time."[114] According to Peter Alan Roberts, theLotus Sūtra may have had its origin among theMahāsāṃghika school and may have been written in amiddle Indic language (aprakrit) that was subsequentlySanskritized.[32] The idea that the sūtra was originally in prakrit remains a contested claim among both secular and religious historians.[115]
TheLotus Sūtra was frequently cited in Indian scholarly treatises and compendiums and several authors of theMadhyamaka and theYogacara school discussed and debated its doctrine of the One Vehicle.[116] According to Jonathan Silk, the influence of the Lotus Sūtra in India may have been limited, but "it is a prominent scripture inEast Asian Buddhism."[117] Jacqueline Stone and Stephen F. Teiser meanwhile write that "it is perhaps no exaggeration to say that theLotus Sūtra has been the most influential Buddhist scripture in East Asia."[9] The sūtra has most prominence inTiantai (sometimes called "The Lotus School"[118]) andNichiren Buddhism.[119]
According to Donald Lopez "the general scholarly consensus is that theLotus Sūtra took shape in four phases." One of the earliest four layer theories of the development of the sūtra was Kogaku Fuse's.[note 5]
Lopez and Seishi Karashima outline these phases as follows:[121][122][123]
Stephen F. Teiser andJacqueline Stone opines that there is consensus about the stages of composition but not about the dating of these strata.[127] Author Yoisho Tamura argues that the first stage of composition (Chapters 2–9) was completed around 50 CE and expanded by chapters 10–21 around 100 CE. He dates the third stage (Chapters 22–27) around 150 CE.[128]
According to Lopez, "the number of surviving manuscripts and manuscript fragments of theLotus Sūtra suggests that the text was copied often."[129] TheLotus Sūtra is also cited in numerous scholarly treatises and compendiums, including in the Compendium of Sūtras (Sūtrasamuccaya, which cites four passages from theLotus), in the Compendium of Training (Śiksāsamuccaya, three passages), in theDazhidu lun (23 citations) and in the Great Compendium of Sūtras (Mahāsūtrasamuccaya) by the eleventh-century Bengali masterAtiśa.[130] It is cited by Indian Buddhists such asVasubandhu (in his commentary on theMahāyānasaṃgraha),Candrakīrti (Madhyamakāvatāra-bhāṣya),Śāntideva,Kamalaśīla andAbhayākaragupta.[32]
According toParamārtha (499–569 CE), there were over fifty Indian commentaries on theLotus.[32] However, there is now only one surviving Indian commentary (which only survives in Chinese). It is attributed toVasubandhu (but this has been questioned by scholars).[131][132][133] This commentary asserts the superiority of theLotus above all other sūtras.[32]
TheLotus Sūtra's doctrine of the One Vehicle was not received equally by all Indian Buddhist traditions. While this doctrine was fully embraced by theMadhyamaka school, the Yogācāra school saw theLotus Sūtra as a provisional text. Thus, for the IndianYogācāra thinkers, the doctrine of the One Vehicle should not be taken literally, since it is merely provisional (neyārtha). According to Donald Lopez "the Yogācāra commentators argue in turn that the declaration that there is but one vehicle is not definitive but provisional, requiring interpretation; it is not to be taken to mean that there are not, in fact, three vehicles. When the Buddha said that the Buddha vehicle was the one vehicle, he was exaggerating. What he meant was that it was the supreme vehicle."[134] For Yogācāra scholars, this sūtra was taught as an expedient means for the benefit of those persons who have entered the lesser śrāvaka vehicle but have the capacity to embrace the Mahāyāna.[135]
An Indian version of theLotus Sūtra was translated into Tibetan byYeshé Dé, and the Indian translator Surendrabodhi during the reign of KingRalpachen (r. 815–38).[32] This version most closely matches the Chinese version of Jñānagupta and Dharmagupta, as well as the Nepalese Sanskrit version.[32]
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Three translations of theLotus Sūtra intoChinese are extant.[38][13][136][note 7] It was first translated intoChinese byDharmarakṣa's team in 286 C. E. inChang'an during theWestern Jin period (265–317 CE).[138][139][note 8] It was initially held that the source text was in Sanskrit, however, the view that the source text was actually in aPrakrit language has gained widespread acceptance.[note 9]
This early translation by Dharmarakṣa was superseded by a translation in seven fascicles byKumārajīva's team in 406 C.E. which became the standard translation in East Asian Buddhism.[141][142][143][note 10] According toJean-Noël Robert, Kumārajīva relied heavily on the earlier version.[144] The Sanskrit editions[145][146][147][148] are not widely used outside of academia. Kumārajīva's version is missing the Devadatta chapter which had been present in the Dharmaraksa version.[32]
The third extant version,The Supplemented Lotus Sūtra of the Wonderful Dharma (Chinese:Tiān Pǐn Miào Fǎ Lián Huá Jīng), in 7 volumes and 27 chapters, is a revised version of Kumārajīva's text, translated byJñānagupta andDharmagupta in 601 C. E.[150] This version included elements that were absent in the Kumārajīva text, including the Devadatta chapter, various verses and the concluding part of chapter 25. Later, these elements were added back to the Kumārajīva text.[32]
The ChineseLotus Sūtra has been translated into other Asian languages including Uighur, Tangut, and more recently colloquial Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean.[9]
One of Kumārajīva's great disciples,Daosheng (355–434), wrote the oldest surviving Chinese commentary on theLotus Sūtra (titled theFahua jing yishu).[9][151] For Daosheng, the central teaching of the sūtra is the One Vehicle. According to Lopez, Daosheng divided the sūtra into three parts (omitting the Devadatta Chapter): "the first thirteen chapters demonstrate that the cause of the three vehicles becomes the cause of the one vehicle. The next eight chapters demonstrate that the effect of the three vehicles is also the effect of the one vehicle. The final six chapters demonstrate that the followers of the three vehicles are the same as the followers of the one vehicle."[152] Daosheng was also known for promoting the concept ofBuddha nature and the idea that even deluded people will attain enlightenment.
Already during theTang dynasty,Daoxuan (596–667) was writing that theLotus Sūtra was "the most important sūtra in China".[153]Kuiji (632–82), a disciple ofXuanzang, wrote a commentary on theLotus. This commentary was translated into Tibetan and survives in theTibetan Buddhist canon.[32] Numerous other commentators from different Chinese Buddhist traditions wrote commentaries on theLotus".[9] One topic of debate among Chinese commentators to theLotus was the "three carts or four carts" debate which focused on whether the One Vehicle was the same as the bodhisattva vehicle or a different vehicle that transcends the Mahāyāna.[9]
Chinese exegetes also disagreed on whether the Buddha of theLotus Sūtra had an infinite life or a finite life (of immeasurable length) as well as on the issue of whether the ultimate, primordial Buddha of theLotus referred to the Dharma-body (dharmakaya), to the reward body (sambhogakaya), or to the manifest, physical body (nirmanakaya).[9]
Perhaps the most influential Chinese commentator on theLotus Sūtra wasZhiyi (538–597), a patriarch of theTiantai School, who was said to have experienced awakening while reading theLotus Sūtra.[154] Zhiyi was a student ofNanyue Huisi who was the leading authority of his time on the Lotus Sūtra.[118][155]
Zhiyi adopted Daosheng's division of the sūtra into three parts. For Zhiyi, the first fourteen chapters are "the trace teaching" (Ch.jimen; shakumon in Japanese) and the second fourteen chapters are the "fundamental" or "original" teaching (benmen; Jp.honmon). For Zhiyi, the key message of the first part is the One Vehicle, while the key message of the second half (the fundamental teaching of the whole text) is the immeasurable lifespan of the Buddha.[156] According to Lopez, "Zhiyi compares the fundamental teaching with the moon shining in the sky and the trace teaching with a moon reflected in a lake; the first is the source of the second."[156] The Chinese practice of developing systems of doctrinal classifications (panjiao) was adopted by Zhiyi, which he interpreted through the doctrine of the One Vehicle. For Zhiyi, while other sūtras provide different messages for their intended audiences, theLotus is uniquely comprehensive and holistic.[9]
Zhiyi's philosophical synthesis saw theLotus Sūtra as the final teaching of the Buddha and the highest teaching of Buddhism.[157] There are two major commentaries from Zhiyi on the sūtra, theProfound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra (Fahua xuanyi) which explains the main principles of the text and theWords and Phrases of the Lotus Sūtra (法華文句Fahua Wenzhu), which comments on specific passages. These two works were compiled by Zhiyi's discipleGuanding (561–632).[158] For Zhiyi, the central principle of theLotus Sūtra's One Vehicle is the "Threefold Truth", a doctrine he developed out of Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy which posited a twofold truth. For Zhiyi, this was the unifying principle which included all of the teachings of the Buddha's teachings and practices.[159] According to Lopez and Stone, Zhiyi's view of theLotus was an inclusive vision which had a place for every Buddhist sūtra, teaching and practice.[160]
Zhiyi also linked the teachings of theLotus Sūtra with the Buddha nature teachings of theMahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. Zhiyi also interpreted the Buddha of theLotus Sūtra as referring to all three Buddha bodies of theTrikaya. According to Stone and Teiser, for Zhiyi "the dharma body is the truth that is realized; the reward body is the wisdom that realizes it; and the manifest body, a compassionate expression of that wisdom as the human Buddha who lived and taught in this world."[9] For Zhiyi,Vairocana (the primordial Buddha) is seen as the "bliss body" (sambhogakāya) of the historical Gautama Buddha.[157] Zhiyi also wrote texts which outlined various spiritual practices that made use of the Lotus Sūtra. For example, chanting the sūtra is an element of one of the "Foursamādhis" (sizhǒng sānmèi) in Zhiyi'smagnum opus, theMohe Zhiguan.[161] He also composed theLotus Samādhi Rite of Repentance (Fahua sanmei chanyi) based on the sūtra.[162] This rite is still performed by contemporary Chinese Tiantai and Japanese Tendai monastics.
The later Tiantai scholarZhanran (711–778) wrote sub-commentaries to Zhiyi's works on theLotus.[9] Based on his analysis of chapter 5, Zhanran would develop a new theory which held that even insentient beings such as rocks, trees and dust particles, possess Buddha-nature. This doctrine would be adopted and developed by Japanese Buddhists like Saichō and Nichiren.[163][164][34]
In China, the coreLotus Sūtra was traditionally compiled with two other sūtras, which serve as a prologue and epilogue. These are:
The combination of these three Sūtras is often called theThreefold Lotus Sūtra orThree-Part Dharma Flower Sūtra (Chinese:法華三部経; pinyin:Fǎhuá Sānbù jīng; Japanese:Hokke Sambu kyō). This tripartite scripture is the traditional edition of the "Lotus Sūtra" inEast Asian Buddhism.[168]
TheThreefold Lotus Sūtra has also been an extremely influential text inJapanese Buddhism. One of the oldest Japanese texts is theHōkke Gisho, a commentary on theLotus Sūtra based on the Chinese commentary by Fayun (467–529 CE). By the 8th century, the sūtra was important enough that theemperor had established a network of nunneries, the so-called "Temples for the Eradication of Sins through theLotus" (Hōkke metsuzai no tera), in each province, as a way to protect the royal family and the state.[169] There were also variousLotus Sūtra rituals that were held throughout Japan, at both temples and aristocratic households. They were believed to help the dead and to grant long life to the living. These rituals are mentioned inThe Tale of Genji.[170] The sūtra was also very influential onJapanese art and some copies of the text are highly elaborate and ornate.[171]
The Tiantai school was brought to Japan bySaichō (767–822), who founded the JapaneseTendai tradition and wrote a commentary to theLotus Sūtra, which would remain central to Tendai.[172][173] Saichō attempted to create a great synthesis of the various Chinese Buddhist traditions in his new Tendai school (including esoteric,Pure Land, Zen and other elements), all which would be united under the Lotus One Vehicle doctrine.[160][9] Saichō also understood theLotus Sūtra to be a "great direct path" to Buddhahood which could be reached in this very life and in this very body.[174] Saichō taught that the Dragon king's daughter story was evidence for this direct path (jikidō) to Buddhahood which did not require three incalculable eons.[9]
Like Zhiyi, the Japanese Tendai school (as well as the Nichiren tradition which is influenced by Tendai) divided theLotus Sūtra into two parts, the trace or provisional teachings (shaku-mon, Chapters 1–14) and the essential teaching (hon-mon, Chapters 15–22) of the true and original Buddha.[175][176]
Post-Saichō Tendai leaders likeEnnin andEnchin also adopted further teachings fromEsoteric Buddhism (mikkyō) into their interpretation and practice of theLotus. These figures interpreted theLotus as an esoteric text, and the Buddha of theLotus Sūtra became seen as timeless and omnipresent cosmic reality that is immanent in all things. By recitingmantras, performingmudras and usingmandalas in esoteric rituals, Tendai monks sought to unite their body, speech and mind with that of the Buddha and attain "Buddhahood in this very body" (sokushin jōbutsu).[177] According to Jacqueline Stone, in Tendai esotericism, "thecosmic Buddha is identified with the primordially enlightened Sakyamuni of the "Life Span" chapter, and his realm—that is, the entire universe—is conceived inmandalic terms as an ever-present, ongoingLotus Sūtra assembly."[34]
As a result of this interpretation, all the provisional Buddhas (such asAmida,Dainichi, andYakushi) were integrated into the Primordial Buddha of immeasurable life from the latter half of theLotus Sūtra.[175][176] These esoteric influences also led to the development of the Tendai concept oforiginal enlightenment (hongaku hōmon).[163][164] According to this theory, Buddhahood is not a distant goal, but is always present as the true inherent nature of all things. Buddhist practice is a way to realize this nature.[178]
Apart from the majorHeian period Tendai temples, there also arose groups of independentLotus Sūtra devotees (jikyōsha) or "Lotus holy ones" (Hōkke hijiri). Many of them were mountain ascetics, or recluses (tonsei) who disliked the large established temples and saw them as more concerned with worldly gain. They focused instead on practices based on the simple recitation, listening or reading of theLotus Sūtra in solitary places (bessho), something which did not require temples and ritual paraphernalia. Hōkke hijiri also engaged in esoterictaimitsu and Daoist immortality practices. These figures feature prominently in theHōkke Genki, a collection ofLotus Sūtra stories and miracles by the priest Chingen, which sees the Hōkke hijiri as being superior to aristocrats or traditional monks.[179][180][181]
Tendai Buddhism was the dominant form of mainstream Buddhism in Japan for many years and the influential founders of later popular Japanese Buddhist sects includingNichiren, Hōnen,Shinran andDōgen were trained as Tendai monks.[182]
The Japanese monkNichiren (1222–1282) founded a new Buddhist school based on his belief that theLotus Sūtra is "the Buddha's ultimate teaching",[184] and that the title is the essence of the sūtra, "the seed of Buddhahood".[185] He was originally a Tendai monk, but grew to believe that Tendai had become corrupt and had turned away from the Lotus Sūtra and embraced all sorts of useless practices, such asesoteric Buddhism andPure Land devotionalism.[186] Nichiren taught that chanting the title of theLotus Sūtra in a phrase called thedaimoku (Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, "Homage to the Sublime Dharma Lotus Blossom Sūtra"). – was the only effective Buddhist practice in what he believed was the current degenerateage of Dharma decline (Skt.saddharmavipralopa, Jp.mappo). This was to be recited in front of agohonzon ("object of veneration").[157][187] According to Stone, Nichiren believed that "the immanent Buddha realm is an ever-present reality" which one could access by this practice.[34]
Nichiren held that current Buddhist sects were gravely mistaken and doomed toAvīci hell because they "slandered the true Dharma" (Skt.saddharmapratiksepa; Jp.hōbō) by seeing other teachings as being above or equal to theLotus Sūtra. He also held that the current social and political chaos in Japan was caused by this misbelief. He therefore tasked himself and his followers with informing as many people as possible by refuting the provisional teachings and encouraging them to abandon their misconceptions of Buddhism through personal engagement (shakubuku) and directing them to the one vehicle of theLotus.[188] He believed that establishing the true Dharma of theLotus in Japan would lead to lasting peace and he identified with the BodhisattvaViśiṣṭacāritra (Superior Practices), leader of the bodhisattvas of the earth which appear in chapter 15.[189]
Nichiren thus vehemently debated the teachings of all other Japanese Buddhist traditions in person and in print. This behavior would often lead to persecution. It was when he saw his own followers being persecuted that he decided it was time to establish the true teachings and inscribed the Dai Gohonzon for all humanity. Nichiren saw this persecution as a compassionate act of self-sacrifice, which needed to be endured. He found this ideal in chapters 10–22 as the "third realm" of the Lotus Sūtra (daisan hōmon) which emphasizes the need for a bodhisattva to endure the trials of life in the defiledsahā world.[190] For Nichiren, these trials and tribulations were termedshikidoku ("reading [theLotus Sūtra] with the body") and they were believed to lesson karmic retribution.[191] Nichiren Buddhism went through various developments and schisms after the death of Nichiren. Nichiren prophesied this misconstruction and that's why he always emphasized to his disciples to "always follow the Law and not the person." The Law (Nam Myoho Renge Kyo) is absolute, whereas the person is relative.
TheLotus Sūtra was also a key source forDōgen (1200–1253), the Japanese founder ofSōtōZen Buddhism.Dōgen writes in hisShōbōgenzō that "compared with this sūtra, all the other sūtras are merely its servants, its relatives, for it alone expounds the truth."[192] According toTaigen Dan Leighton, "While Dōgen's writings employ many sources, probably along with his own intuitive meditative awareness, his direct citations of theLotus Sūtra indicate his conscious appropriation of its teachings as a significant source"[193] and that his writing "demonstrates that Dōgen himself saw theLotus Sūtra, 'expounded by all Buddhas in the three times,' as an important source for this self-proclamatory rhetorical style of expounding."[194]
In hisShōbōgenzō, Dōgen directly discusses theLotus Sūtra in the essayHōkke-Ten-Hōkke, "The Dharma Flower Turns the Dharma Flower". The essay uses a dialogue from thePlatform Sūtra betweenHuineng and a monk who has memorized theLotus Sūtra to illustrate thenon-dual nature of Dharma practice and sūtra study.[193] During his final days, Dogen spent his time reciting and writing theLotus Sūtra in his room which he named "The Lotus Sūtra Hermitage".[195] The Sōtō Zen monkRyōkan also studied theLotus Sūtra extensively and this sūtra was the biggest inspiration for his poetry and calligraphy.[196]
TheRinzai Zen masterHakuin Ekaku (1687–1768) final awakening while reading the third chapter of the Lotus Sūtra.[197] Hakuin writes that when he first read the sūtra at age sixteen, he was disappointed with it. However, sixteen years later, after experiencing an awakening, he wrote,
“One night, after some time, I took up theLotus Sūtra. Suddenly I penetrated to the perfect, true, ultimate meaning of the Lotus. The doubts I had held initially were destroyed and I became aware that the understanding I had obtained up to then was greatly in error. Unconsciously I uttered a great cry and burst into tears.”[198]
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According to Shields, modernist Japanese interpretations of theLotus Sūtra begin with the early 20th century nationalist applications of theLotus Sūtra byChigaku Tanaka, Nissho Honda,Seno'o, andNisshō Inoue.[199]Japanese new religions began forming in the 19th century and the trend accelerated afterWorld War II. Some of these groups have pushed the study and practice of theLotus Sūtra to a global scale.[200][201]
According to scholar Jacqueline Stone,Soka Gakkai generally follows an exclusivist approach to theLotus Sūtra, believing that only Nichiren Buddhism can bring world peace. Sōkka Gakkai no longer teaches the differences between the two gates or "divisions" of theLotus Sūtra. Instead, the modern organization teaches that only the sincere recitation of the daimoku is the "Doctrine of Essential Teaching" and that this does not require any clerical priesthood or temples since the true sangha comprises all people "who believe in the Buddha Dharma of Nichiren".[202]
Meanwhile, Risshō Kōsei Kai follows an ecumenical, and inclusive approach and is known for its interfaith efforts and focus onworld peace. According to its co-founderNiwano Nikkyō (1906–1999), "Lotus Sūtra is not a proper noun, but the fundamental truth—God, Allah, or the one vehicle—at the heart of all great religions."[34]
In a similar fashion,Etai Yamada (1900–1999), the 253rd head priest of theTendai denomination conducted ecumenical dialogues with religious leaders around the world based on his inclusive interpretation of theLotus Sūtra, which culminated in a 1987 summit. He also used theLotus Sūtra to move his sect from a "temple Buddhism" perspective to one based on social engagement.[203] Nichiren-inspired Buddhist organizations have shared their interpretations of theLotus Sūtra through publications, academic symposia, and exhibitions.[204][205]
One of the first mentions of theLotus Sūtra by a westerner can be found in the work of the Catholic missionaryMatteo Ricci. In hisThe True Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu shiyi), published in 1603, Ricci mentions theLotus Sūtra and denounces its teaching.[206]
Eugene Burnouf'sIntroduction à l'histoire du Buddhisme indien (1844) marks the start of modern academic scholarship of Buddhism in the West. According to Lopez, this tome "seems to have been originally intended to aid readers in understanding theLotus Sūtra," the translation of which Burnouf had completed in 1839. Burnouf decided to delay the publication of this translation so that he could write an introduction to it, that is, his 1844Introduction.[207] Burnouf's French translation of a Nepalese Sanskrit manuscript of theLotus Sūtra, titled "Le Lotus de la bonne loi traduit du Sanscrit accompagné d’un commentaire et de vingt et un mémoires relatifs au Buddhisme", was published posthumously in 1852.[208][209][210]
Burnouf really appreciated the "parables" (Sanskrit:aupamya, "comparisons", "analogies", more accurately described asallegories) found in theLotus, which reminded him of the parables of theNew Testament. He would write "I know of nothing so Christian in all of Asia" and saw theLotus as containing a "moral Christianity, full of compassion for all creatures."[211] He also understood theLotus Sūtra (as well as other Mahayana works) to be later, more "developed" texts than the "simple"earlier sūtras which contained more historical content and less metaphysical ideas.[212]
A chapter of theLotus Sūtra was published in 1844, prior to Burnouf's translation being published. This chapter was published in the journalThe Dial, a publication of the New Englandtranscendentalists, and had been translated from French to English byElizabeth Palmer Peabody.[213] This chapter was the first English version of any Buddhist scripture.[214][215]
An English translation of theLotus Sūtra from two Sanskrit manuscripts copied in Nepal around the 11th century was completed byHendrik Kern in 1884 and published asSaddharma-Pundarîka, or, the Lotus of the True Law as part of theSacred Books of the East project.[216][217][218]
Western interest in theLotus Sūtra waned in the latter 19th century as Indo-centric scholars focused on olderPali and Sanskrit texts. However, Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, based predominantly in China, became interested inKumārajīva's translation of theLotus Sūtra. These scholars attempted to draw parallels between the Old and New Testaments to earlierNikaya sūtras and theLotus Sūtra. Abbreviated and "Christianized" translations were published by Richard and Soothill.[219][220]
After theSecond World War, scholarly attention to theLotus Sūtra was inspired by renewed interest in Japanese Buddhism as well as archeological research inDunhuang inGansu, China. In 1976, Leon Hurvitz publishedThe Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, a scholarly English translation of theLotus Sūtra based on Kumarajiva's Chinese. Whereas the Hurvitz work was independent scholarship, other modern translations were sponsored by Japanese Buddhist institutions. For example, the 1975 Bunno Kato and Yoshiro Tamura translation of the "Threefold Lotus Sūtra" was promoted by Rissho-kosei-kai, theBurton Watson translation was backed by Soka Gakkai and the Tsugunari Kubo and Akira Yuyama translation was sponsored by Bukkyō Dendō Kyōkai ("Society for the Promotion of Buddhism").[221][222][223][224][225][226][227][228]
Translations into French,[229] Spanish[230] and German[231][232] are also based on Kumarajiva's Chinese text. Each of these translations incorporate differentapproaches and styles that range from complex to simplified.[233]
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According to Gene Reeves, "theLotus Sūtra frequently advocates concrete practices, which are often related to the sūtra itself. They are often given as sets of four to six practices, but include receiving and embracing the sūtra, hearing it, reading and reciting it, remembering it correctly, copying it, explaining it, understanding its meaning, pondering it, proclaiming it, practicing as it teaches, honoring it, protecting it, making offerings to it, preaching it and teaching it to others, and leading others to do any of these things."[234] The Sūtra also promotes the building of stūpas wherever theLotus Sūtra is being preached.[235]
TheLotus Sūtra also mentions thesix paramitas andthe eightfold path.[236] Other passages from the sūtra have been seen as promoting certain ways of living. For example, the story of Never Disrespectful Bodhisattva in chapter 20 has been seen by some as teaching that we should see all beings as potential Buddhas and treat them accordingly.[237] Similarly, other parts of the sūtra have been interpreted as exhortations to share the Dharma of theLotus with other people.[9]
The sūtra became an extremely important text for religious practice in East Asian Buddhism, especially through ritualized devotional practice.[237] A particularly important set of practices are the "five practices of the preacher of the dharma" (found in Chapter 19), which are preserving (or "upholding"), reading, reciting, explaining, and copying the sūtra.[9][235]
According to Daniel Stevenson, "upholding the sūtra," "does not connote a specific regimen of practice but functions as a generic designation forLotus Sūtra devotion in all its guises, above all devotion that is focused and sustained."[235] Thus, it is a general term for enthusiastic embrace of the sūtra. The term derived from the Sanskrit rootdhr, related todharani and could refer to thememorization and retention of the teaching as well as to the more abstract "apprehension" of the Dharma in meditative states of samadhi. Memorizing passages, chapters or the whole sūtra thus became a major practice amongLotus Sūtra devotees. Once memorized, the text could be recited as a daily practice. "Upholding the sūtra" also referred to other practices, such as engaging in or promotingsūtra copying (抄經, chāo jīng), as well as storing, enshrining and safekeeping of the physical copies of the sūtra.[235]
It was said that these practices were verymeritorious and could lead to miracles. Stories dealing withLotus Sūtra miracles, such as Huixiang'sAccounts of the Propagation of the Lotus Sūtra (c. 7th century) andZongxiao'sRecord of The Lotus Sūtra’s Manifest Responses became a popular genre in China and Japan.[238][9] The popularity of these practices can be seen from the fact that a thousand copies of the text were sealed in theDunhuang caves in the 11th century.[32] In these texts, the largest sections deal with reading, chanting, and memorizing of the sūtra, indicating the importance of these textual practices.[235] In one famous example, the Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi is said to have memorized the entire sūtra in his teens.[235] TheLotus Sūtra was also one of the most widely memorized Buddhist texts, a practice which became a requirement for Buddhist monastic ordination at various points throughout Chinese history.[235]
Lotus Sūtra textual practices were often sponsored by Asian states as a way to protect the nation but they were also carried out by people from all social classes. Ritualized recitation, copying of the text and lectures explaining theLotus Sūtra were performed at temples, shrines, and private residences. It was believed that these practices generated many benefits, from spiritual benefits like visions of Buddhas, rebirth in a pure land, awakening, and helping deceased relatives, to worldly benefits like peace, healing and protection from harm.[9] In a similar fashion, the creation of different forms ofvisual,plastic,calligraphic,performance arts based on theLotus Sūtra also came to be seen as a form of spiritual practice and a skillful means. The production of these works, which includedLotus Sūtra manuscripts themselves, could become highly ritualized processes.[9][235] Likewise, the telling of miracle stories and composition of literature based on the Lotus Sūtra was also seen as another way to practice its teachings.[235]
In China, the practice extracted from chapter 20 of seeing all beings as Buddhas and paying homage to every person one encounters, called "universal veneration" (pujing 普敬), became popular during early Medieval China. It was also adopted as the main practice of Xinxing (540–594) "Three Stages Movement".[235] Meanwhile, the self immolation of bodhisattva Medicine King inspired a controversial tradition of cremating parts of one's body as a kind of devotion. Chapter 25 has also been very influential on AsianGuanyin (觀音) devotionalism.[235]
The chanting of theLotus was and remains widely practiced in Chinese Buddhism. It is often accompanied by thewooden fish instrument and preceded by various ritual acts, invocations, offerings and visualizations. The works of the Tiantai master Zhiyi include variousLotus Sūtra based practices like the "Rite of Repentance for the Lotus Samādhi".[161] Zhiyi was also said to have memorized the entire ThreefoldLotus Sūtra.[235]Zongxiao (1151–1214) mentions a practice which consisted in performing one or threeprostrations for every character of the sūtra.[235]
In the Japanese Tendai school, theLotus Sūtra is an important part of Taimitsu ("Tendai esotericism") where it is part of certain rituals, such as the "Lotus rite" (Hōkke ho), "performed to eradicate sin, build merit, and realize awakening." According to Stone and Teiser, "the mandala used in this ritual depicts the two Buddhas Sakyamuni and Many Jewels seated together in its central court, as they appeared in the jeweled stūpa of theLotus Sūtra."[9]
In Nichiren Buddhism, the central practice is the recitation of the title of theLotus Sūtra, called thedaimoku. This formula isNamu Myōhō Renge Kyō. Nichiren Buddhists believe that this phrase contains the meaning of the entire sūtra and contains and supersedes all other Buddhist practices (which are seen as provisional and no longer effective). By chanting this phrase with faith, one is said to be able to achieve Buddhahood.[9] Nichiren Buddhists often chant this phrase while facing a "great mandala" (daimandara), or "revered object of worship" (gohonzon), a practice that was promoted by Nichiren himself. Nichiren believed that chanting while contemplating the gohonzon allowed to enter the mandala of the Lotus assembly.[9]
TheLotus Sūtra has had a great impact on East Asian literature, art, and folklore for over 1400 years. James Shields of Bucknell University remarked that, with regard to cultural influence, theLotus Sūtra "plays a role equivalent to the Bible in Europe or the Qur’an in the Middle East."[239]
Various events from the sūtra are depicted in religious art.[240][241][242] Wang argues that the explosion of art inspired by theLotus Sūtra, starting from the 7th and 8th centuries in China, was a confluence of text and the topography of the Chinese medieval mind in which the latter dominated.[243]
Motifs from theLotus Sūtra figure prominently in theDunhuang caves built in theSui era.[244] In the fifth century, the scene ofShakyamuni andPrabhutaratna Buddhas seated together as depicted in the 11th chapter of theLotus Sūtra became arguably the most popular theme in Chinese Buddhist art.[245] Examples can be seen in a bronze plaque (year 686) atHase-dera Temple in Japan[246] and, in Korea, atDabotap andSeokgatap Pagodas, built in 751, atBulguksa Temple.[247]
Tamura refers to the "Lotus Sūtra literary genre."[248] Its ideas and images are writ large in great works of Chinese and Japanese literature such asThe Dream of the Red Chamber andThe Tale of Genji.[249] TheLotus Sūtra has had an outsized influence on Japanese Buddhist poetry.[250] Far more poems have beenLotus Sūtra-inspired than other sūtras.[251] In the workKanwa taisho myoho renge-kyo, a compendium of more than 120 collections of poetry from theHeian period, there are more than 1360 poems with references to theLotus Sūtra in just their titles.[252][253]
According to Gene Reeves, "Japan's greatest twentieth-century storyteller and poet,Kenji Miyazawa, became devoted to theLotus Sūtra, writing to his father on his own deathbed that all he ever wanted to do was share the teachings of this sūtra with others." Miyazawa implicitly references the sūtra in his writings.[254]
According to Jacqueline Stone and Stephen Teiser "theNoh drama and other forms of medieval Japanese literature interpreted Chapter 5, "Medicinal Herbs", as teaching the potential for Buddhahood in grasses and trees (sōmoku jōbutsu)."[9]
TheLotus Sūtra has inspired a branch of folklore based on figures in the sūtra or subsequent people who have embraced it. The story of theDragon King's daughter, who attained enlightenment in the 12th (Devadatta) chapter of theLotus Sūtra, appears in theComplete Tale of Avalokiteśvara and the Southern Seas and thePrecious Scroll of Sudhana and Longnü folkstories. TheMiraculous Tales of the Lotus Sūtra[255] is a collection of 129 stories with folklore motifs based on "Buddhist pseudo-biographies."[256]
In theKongō Range surroundingOsaka, Japan, theKatsuragi 28 Shuku is a series ofsūtra mounds corresponding to each of the twenty-eight chapters of theLotus Sūtra. According to legend, each chapter of theLotus Sūtra was buried in a separate location byEn no Gyoja, the mythical 7th-century founder ofShugendō.[257][258][259][260]
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Lotus Sutra public domain audiobook atLibriVoxSaddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra | ||
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