The exact origin of the nameLjubljana is unclear. Inmedieval times, both the river and the town were also calledLaibach (pronounced[ˈlaɪbax]ⓘ) in German. This name was used within the region until 1918 and continues to be used in German. In Italian, the city is referred to asLubiana, and in Latin, it is known asLabacum.[18] An archaic English form of the city's name isLublyana, used primarily bySlovene Americans.[19]
The German name was first documented in 1144, and the Slovenian form appeared in records as early as 1146. The 10th-century workLife of Gregentios provides the Greek variantΛυπλιανές (Lyplianés) and situates it among theAvars in the 6th century. This account is influenced by an earlier northern Italian source written shortly after theconquest of 774.[20]
The connection between the Slovene and German names has posed a puzzle for scholars. In 2007, linguistTijmen Pronk, an authority in comparative Indo-European linguistics and Slovene dialectology from theUniversity of Leiden, provided strong support for the theory that the Slavicljub- 'to love, like' was the most likely origin. He argued that the river's name likely stemmed from the settlement's name.[21][22] Silvo Torkar, a linguist with expertise in Slovene names, put forth the idea that Ljubljana's name has its roots inLjubija, the original name of theLjubljanica River. This can be traced back to the Old Slavic male nameLjubovid, which translates to 'the one with a lovely appearance'. Torkar also asserted that the nameLaibach is a combination of German and Slovene, sharing its origins with the same personal name.[23][24]
The city's symbol is theLjubljana Dragon. It is depicted on the top of the tower ofLjubljana Castle in the Ljubljana coat of arms and on the Ljubljanica-crossingDragon Bridge (Zmajski most).[25] It represents power, courage, and greatness.
Several explanations describe the origin of the Ljubljana Dragon. According to aSlavic myth, the slaying of a dragon releases the waters and ensures the fertility of the earth, and it is thought that the myth is tied to theLjubljana Marsh, the expansive marshy area that periodically threatens Ljubljana with flooding.[26] According toGreek legend, theArgonauts on their return home after having taken theGolden Fleece found a large lake surrounded by a marsh between the present-day towns ofVrhnika and Ljubljana. ThereJason struck down a monster. This monster evolved into thedragon that today is present in the city coat of arms and flag.[27]
It is historically more believable that the dragon was adopted fromSaint George, the patron of the Ljubljana Castle chapel built in the 15th century.[citation needed] In the legend of Saint George, the dragon represents the old ancestralpaganism overcome byChristianity. According to another explanation, related to the second, the dragon was at first only a decoration above the city coat of arms. In theBaroque, it became part of the coat of arms and, in the 19th and especially the 20th century, it outstripped the tower and other elements in importance.[citation needed]
Later, the area remained a transit point, for groups including theIllyrians, followed by a mixed nation of theCelts and the Illyrians called theIapodes, and then in the 3rd century BC a Celtic tribe, theTaurisci.[31]
Around 50 BC, theRomans built a military encampment that later became a permanent settlement calledIulia Aemona.[33][34][35] This entrenched fort was occupied by theLegio XV Apollinaris.[36] In 452, it was destroyed by theHuns underAttila's orders,[33] and later by theOstrogoths and theLombards.[37] Emona housed 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants and played an important role during battles. Its plastered brick houses, painted in different colours, were connected to adrainage system.[33]
In the 6th century, the ancestors of theSlovenes moved in. In the 9th century, they fell underFrankish domination, while experiencing frequentMagyar raids.[38] Not much is known about the area during the settlement ofSlavs in the period between the downfall of Emona and the Early Middle Ages.
The parchment sheetNomina defunctorum ("Names of the Dead"), most probably written in the second half of 1161, mentions the nobleman Rudolf of Tarcento, a lawyer of thePatriarchate of Aquileia, who had bestowed a canon with 20 farmsteads beside thecastle of Ljubljana (castrum Leibach) to the Patriarchate. According to the historianPeter Štih's deduction, this happened between 1112 and 1125, the earliest mention of Ljubljana.[39]
The property changed hands repeatedly until the first half of the 12th century. The territory south of theSava where Ljubljana developed, gradually became property of the Carinthian Dukes of theHouse of Sponheim.[39] Urban settlement started in the second half of the 12th century.[39] At around 1200,market rights were granted to Old Square (Stari trg),[40] which at the time was one of Ljubljana's three original districts. The other two districts were an area called "Town" (Mesto), built around the predecessor of the present-dayLjubljana Cathedral at one side of theLjubljanica River, and New Square (Novi trg) at the other side.[41] TheFranciscan Bridge, a predecessor of the present-dayTriple Bridge, and theButchers' Bridge connected the walled areas with wooden buildings.[41] Ljubljana acquired thetown privileges at some time between 1220 and 1243.[42] Seven fires erupted during the Middle Ages.[43] Artisans organised themselves intoguilds. TheTeutonic Knights, theConventual Franciscans, and theFranciscans settled there.[44] In 1256, when the Carinthian dukeUlrich III of Spanheim became lord of Carniola, the provincial capital was moved fromKamnik to Ljubljana.
In the late 1270s, Ljubljana was conquered by KingOttokar II of Bohemia.[45] In 1278, after Ottokar's defeat, it became—together with the rest ofCarniola—property ofRudolph of Habsburg.[37][38] It was administered by theCounts of Gorizia from 1279 until 1335,[40][46][47] when it became the capital town of Carniola.[38] RenamedLaibach, it was owned by theHouse of Habsburg until 1797.[37] In 1327, the Ljubljana's "Jewish Quarter"—now only "Jewish Street" (Židovska ulica) remains—was established with a synagogue, and lasted until EmperorMaximilian I in 1515 and expelled the Jews from Ljubljana at the request of its citizens, for which he demanded a certain payment from the town.[40] In 1382, in front ofSt. Bartholomew's Church inŠiška, at the time a nearby village, now part of Ljubljana, a peace treaty was signed between theRepublic of Venice andLeopold III ofHabsburg.[40]
In the 16th century, the population of Ljubljana numbered 5,000, 70% of whom spokeSlovene as theirfirst language, with most of the rest using German.[52] The firstsecondary school, public library and printing house opened in Ljubljana. Ljubljana became an important educational centre.[55]
In 1597, theJesuits arrived, followed in 1606 by theCapuchins, seeking toeradicate Protestantism. Only 5% of all the residents of Ljubljana at the time were Catholic, but eventually they re-Catholicized the town. The Jesuits staged the first theatre productions, fostered the development ofBaroque music, and established Catholic schools. In the middle and the second half of the 17th century, foreign architects built and renovated monasteries, churches, and palaces and introducedBaroque architecture. In 1702, theUrsulines settled in the town, and the following year they opened the first public school for girls in theSlovene Lands. Some years later, the construction of theUrsuline Church of the Holy Trinity started.[58][59] In 1779,St. Christopher's Cemetery replaced the cemetery atSt. Peter's Church as Ljubljana's main cemetery.[60]
Ljubljana in the 18th centuryCelebration during theCongress of Laibach, 1821Ljubljana, c. 1900The 1895 earthquake destroyed much of the city centre, enabling an extensive renovation program.The oldest preserved film recordings of Ljubljana (1909), with a depiction of streets, theLjubljana tram, and a celebration. Salvatore Spina Company, Trieste.[61][62]
From 1809 to 1813, during the "Napoleonic interlude", Ljubljana (asLaybach) was the capital of theIllyrian Provinces.[37][63] In 1813, the city returned to Austria and from 1815 to 1849 was the administrative centre of theKingdom of Illyria in the Austrian Empire.[64] In 1821, it hosted theCongress of Laibach, which fixed European political borders for that period.[65][66] The first train arrived in 1849 from Vienna and in 1857 the line extended toTrieste.[63]
In 1895, Ljubljana, then a city of 31,000, suffereda severe earthquake with amoment magnitude of 6.1 and a maximumEMS intensity of VIII–IX ("heavily damaging – destructive").[67] 21 people died due to the earthquake and some 10% of the city's 1,400 buildings were destroyed.[68][69] During the subsequent reconstruction, some districts were rebuilt in theVienna Secession style.[63] Publicelectric lighting arrived in 1898. The rebuilding period between 1896 and 1910 is referred to as the "revival of Ljubljana" because of architectural changes that defined the city and for reform of urban administration, health, education and tourism. The rebuilding and quick modernisation of the city were led by the mayorIvan Hribar.[63]
Overview ofMount Saint Mary, the highest hill in Ljubljana, with the peak Grmada reaching 676 m (2,218 ft)
The city covers 163.8 km2 (63.2 sq mi).[1] It is situated in theLjubljana Basin inCentral Slovenia, between theAlps and theKarst. Ljubljana is located some 320 km (200 mi) south ofMunich, 477 km (296 mi) east ofZürich, 250 km (160 mi) east of Venice, 350 km (220 mi) southwest ofVienna, 124 km (77 mi) west ofZagreb and 400 km (250 mi) southwest ofBudapest.[81] Ljubljana has grown considerably since the 1970s, mainly by merging with nearby settlements.[82]
Ljubljana has an elevation of 295 m (968 ft).[85] Thecity centre, located along the river, sits at 298 m (978 ft).[86]Ljubljana Castle, which sits atop Castle Hill (Grajski grič) south of the city centre, has an elevation of 366 m (1,201 ft). The highest point of the city, calledGrmada, reaches 676 m (2,218 ft), 3 m (9.8 ft) more than the nearbyMount Saint Mary (Šmarna gora) peak, a popular hiking destination.[87][88] These are located in the northern part of the city.[87]
View to the south fromLjubljana Castle with theLjubljana Marsh in the back. The building density there is substantially lower due to unsuitable ground for construction.
The Ljubljanica in the centre of the cityBridges across the Ljubljanica River are popular tourist attractionsKoseze Pond is used for rowing, fishing, and ice skating in winter.
The main watercourses in Ljubljana are theLjubljanica, theSava, theGradaščica, theMali Graben, theIška and the Iščica rivers. From theTrnovo District to theMoste District, around Castle Hill, the Ljubljanica partly flows through theGruber Canal, built according to plans byGabriel Gruber from 1772 until 1780. Next to the eastern border, the rivers Ljubljanica, Sava, andKamnik Bistrica flow together.[89][90] The confluence is the lowest point of Ljubljana, with an elevation of 261 m (856 ft).[86]
Through its history, Ljubljana has been struck by floods.The latest was in August 2023, when theSava and Gradaščica rivers flooded in their upper reaches.[91] Southern and western parts of the city are more flood-endangered than northern parts.[92] The Gruber Canal has partly diminished the danger of floods in theLjubljana Marsh, the largest marsh in Slovenia, south of the city.
The two major ponds in Ljubljana areKoseze Pond in the Šiška District andTivoli Pond in the southern part ofTivoli City Park.[93] Koseze Pond has rare plant and animal species and is a place of meeting and recreation.[94] Tivoli Pond is a shallow pond with a small volume that was originally used for boating and ice skating, but is now used for fishing.[95]
Ljubljana's climate isoceanic (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), bordering on ahumid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa), withcontinental characteristics such as warm summers and moderately cold winters.[96][97] July and August are the warmest months with daily high temperatures generally between 25 and 30 °C (77 and 86 °F), and January is the coldest month with temperatures mostly around 0 °C (32 °F). The city experiences up to 90 days of frost per year, and 11 days with temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) (often even more). Precipitation is relatively evenly distributed throughout the seasons, although winter and spring tend to be somewhat drier than summer and autumn. Yearly precipitation is about 1,400 mm (55 in), making Ljubljana one of the wettest European capitals. Thunderstorms are common from May to September and can occasionally be heavy. Snow is common from December to February; on average, snow cover is recorded for 48 days a year. The city is known for its fog, appearing on average on 64 days per year, mostly in autumn and winter, and can be particularly persistent in conditions oftemperature inversion.[98]
Climate data for Ljubljana (Bežigrad District) 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1948–present
View of Ljubljana from Nebotičnik; Ljubljana Castle is on the left.
The city's architecture is a mix of styles. Large buildings have appeared around the city's edges, while Ljubljana's historic centre remains intact. Some of the oldest architecture dates to the Roman period, while Ljubljana's downtown got its outline in the Middle Ages.[107] After the1511 earthquake, it was rebuilt in theBaroque style following Italian, particularly Venetian, models.
After the earthquake in 1895, it was again rebuilt, this time in theVienna Secession style, which is juxtaposed against the earlier Baroque style buildings that remain. Large sectors built in the inter-war period often include a personal touch by the architectsJože Plečnik[108] andIvan Vurnik.[109] In the second half of the 20th century, parts of Ljubljana were redesigned byEdvard Ravnikar.[110]
The central square in Ljubljana isPrešeren Square (Prešernov trg) home to theFranciscan Church of the Annunciation (Frančiškanska cerkev). Built between 1646 and 1660 (the bell towers followed), it replaced an older Gothic church. It offers an early-Baroque basilica with one nave and two rows of lateral chapels. The Baroque main altar was executed by sculptor ItalianFrancesco Robba. Much of the original frescos were ruined by ceiling cracks caused by theLjubljana earthquake in 1895. The new frescos were painted by the Sloveneimpressionist painterMatej Sternen.
Ljubljana Castle (Ljubljanski grad) is a medieval castle withRomanesque,Gothic, andRenaissance architectural elements, located on the summit of Castle Hill, which dominates the city centre.[111] The area surrounding the castle has been continuously inhabited since 1200 BC.[112] The castle was built in the 12th century and was a residence of theMargraves, later theDukes of Carniola.[113] Its Viewing Tower dates to 1848; it was manned by a guard whose duty it was to fire cannons announcing fire or important visitors or events, a function the castle still holds.[112] Cultural events and weddings also take place there.[114] In 2006, afunicular linked the city centre to the castle.[115]
Ljubljana Cathedral
Town Hall (Mestna hiša,Magistrat), located atTown Square, is the seat ofcity government. The original, Gothic building was completed in 1484.[116] Between 1717 and 1719,[108] the building underwent a Baroque renovation with a Venetian inspiration by architect Gregor Maček Sr.[117] Near Town Hall, atTown Square, stands a replica of the BaroqueRobba Fountain. The original was moved into theNational Gallery in 2006. The fountain is decorated with an obelisk; at the foot are three figures in white marble symbolising the three chief rivers of Carniola. It is work of Francesco Robba, who designed other Baroque statues there.[118]
Ljubljana Cathedral (ljubljanska stolnica), or St. Nicholas's Cathedral (stolnica sv. Nikolaja), serves theArchdiocese of Ljubljana. Easily identifiable due to its green dome and twin towers, it is located at Cyril and Methodius Square (Ciril-Metodov trg, named forSaints Cyril and Methodius).[119] The Diocese was set up in 1461.[119] Between 1701 and 1706, Jesuit architectAndrea Pozzo designed the Baroque church with two side chapels shaped in the form of aLatin cross.[119] The dome was built in the centre in 1841.[119] The interior is decorated with Baroque frescos painted byGiulio Quaglio between 1703–1706 and 1721–1723.[119]
Nebotičnik (pronounced[nɛbɔtiːtʃniːk], "Skyscraper") is a thirteen-story building that rises to a height of 70.35 m (231 ft). It combines elements ofNeoclassical andArt-Deco architecture. Predominantly a place of business, Nebotičnik is home to shops on the ground floor and first story, and offices are located on floors two to five. The sixth to ninth floors are private residences. The top three floors host a café, bar and observation deck.[120] It was designed by Slovenian architectVladimir Šubic. The building opened on 21 February 1933.[121] It was once the tallest residential building in Europe.[121]
TheLjubljana Botanical Garden (Ljubljanski botanični vrt) covers 2.40 ha (5.9 acres) next to the junction of theGruber Canal and the Ljubljanica, south of the Old Town. It is the central Slovenianbotanical garden and the oldest cultural, scientific, and educational organisation in the country. It started operating under the leadership ofFranc Hladnik in 1810. Of over 4,500 plantspecies andsubspecies, roughly a third isendemic to Slovenia, whereas the rest originate from other European places and other continents. The institution is a member of the international networkBotanic Gardens Conservation International and cooperates with more than 270 botanical gardens all across the world.[125]
The 1901Dragon Bridge, decorated with dragon statues[127] on pedestals at four corners of the bridge[128][129] has become a symbol of the city[130] and is regarded as one of the most beautiful examples of a bridge made inVienna Secession style.[25][131][130][132] It has a span of 33.34 m (109 ft 5 in)[25] and its arch was at the time the third largest in Europe.[128] It is protected as a technical monument.[133]
Decorated with mythological bronze sculptures, created byJakov Brdar, from Ancient Greek mythology and Biblical stories,[134] the Butchers' Bridge connects theLjubljana Open Market area and the restaurants-filledPetkovšek Embankment (Petkovškovo nabrežje). It is also known as thelove padlocks-decorated bridge in Ljubljana.
The scenic Triple Bridge, decorated with stone balusters and stone lamps on all of the three bridges
TheTriple Bridge is decorated with stonebalusters and stone lamps on all of the three bridges and leads to the terraces looking on the river and poplar trees. It occupies a central point on the east–west axis, connecting theTivoli City Park withRožnik Hill, on one side, and theLjubljana Castle on the other,[135] and the north–south axis through the city, represented by the river. It was enlarged in order to prevent the historically single bridge from being abottleneck by adding two sidepedestrian bridges to the middle one.
The Fish Footbridge offers a view of the neighbouring Triple Bridge to the north and the Cobbler's Bridge to the South. It is a transparent glass-made bridge, illuminated at night by in-built LEDs.[136] From 1991 to 2014 the bridge was a wooden one and decorated with flowers, while since its reconstruction in 2014, it is made of glass. It was planned already in 1895 byMax Fabiani to build a bridge on the location, in 1913Alfred Keller planned a staircase, laterJože Plečnik incorporated both into his own plans which, however, were not realised.[137]
The 1930 'Cobblers' Bridge' (Šuštarski, from GermanSchuster – Shoemaker) is anotherPlečnik's creation, connecting two major areas of medieval Ljubljana. It is decorated by two kinds of pillars, theCorinthian pillars which delineate the shape of the bridge itself and theIonic pillars as lamp-bearers.[138]
The Trnovo Bridge is the most prominent object of Plečnik's renovation of the banks of the Gradaščica. It is located in the front of theTrnovo Church to the south of the city centre. It connects the neighbourhoods ofKrakovo andTrnovo, the oldest Ljubljana suburbs, known for their market gardens and cultural events.[139] It was built between 1929 and 1932. It is distinguished by its width and two rows ofbirches that it bears, because it was meant to serve as a public space in front of the church. Each corner of the bridge is capped with a small pyramid, a signature motif of Plečnik's, whereas the mid-span features a pair ofArt-Deco male sculptures. There is also a statue ofSaint John the Baptist on the bridge, the patron of the Trnovo Church. It was designed byNikolaj Pirnat.
Having already existed in the 18th century, Ljubljana's central square,Prešeren Square's modern appearance has developed since the end of the 19th century. After the 1895 earthquake,Max Fabiani designed the square as the hub of four streets and four banks, and in the 1980sEdvard Ravnikar proposed the circular design and the granite block pavement.[147][148] A statue of the Slovenenational poetFrance Prešeren with amuse stands in the middle of the square. ThePrešeren Monument was created byIvan Zajec in 1905, whereas the pedestal was designed by Max Fabiani. The square and surroundings have been closed to traffic since 1 September 2007.[149] Only a tourist train leaves Prešeren Square every day, transporting tourists toLjubljana Castle.[149]
Republic Square, originally named Revolution Square, is the largest square in Ljubljana.[150] It was designed in the second half of the 20th century by Edvard Ravnikar.[150] On 26 June 1991, the independence of Slovenia was declared here.[150] TheNational Assembly Building stands at its northern side, andCankar Hall, the largest Slovenian cultural and congress centre, at the southern side.[150] At its eastern side stands the two-storey building ofMaximarket, also the work of Ravnikar. It houses one of the oldest department stores in Ljubljana and a cafe, which is a popular meeting place and a place for political talks and negotiations.[151]
Congress Square (Kongresni trg) is one of the important centres of the city. It was built in 1821 for ceremonial purposes such asCongress of Ljubljana after which it was named. Since then it has been a centre for political ceremonies, demonstrations, and protests, such as the ceremony for the creation of theKingdom of Yugoslavia, ceremony of the liberation ofBelgrade, and protests againstYugoslav authority in 1988. The square also houses several important buildings, such as theUniversity of Ljubljana Palace,Philharmonic Hall,Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity, and theSlovene Society Building. Star Park (Park Zvezda) is located in the centre of the square. In 2010 and 2011, the square was renovated and is now mostly closed to road traffic on ground area, however, there are five floors for commercial purposes and a parking lot located underground.[152]
Čop Street (Čopova ulica) is a major thoroughfare in the centre of Ljubljana. The street is named afterMatija Čop, an early 19th-century literary figure and close friend of the SloveneRomantic poetFrance Prešeren. It leads from theMain Post Office (Glavna pošta) atSlovene Street (Slovenska cesta) downward to Prešeren Square and is lined with bars and stores, including the oldestMcDonald's restaurant in Slovenia. It is a pedestrian zone and regarded as the capital's centralpromenade.
The Ljubljana accent and/or dialect (Slovene:ljubljanščina[luːblɑːŋʃnɑː]ⓘ) is considered a border dialect, since Ljubljana is situated where theUpper dialect andLower Carniolan dialect group meet. Historically,[153] the Ljubljana dialect in the past displayed features more similar with the Lower Carniolan dialect group, but it gradually grew closer to the Upper dialect group, as a direct consequence of mass migration from Upper Carniola into Ljubljana in the 19th and 20th century. Ljubljana as a city grew mostly to the north, and gradually incorporated many villages that were historically part ofUpper Carniola and so its dialect shifted away and closer to theUpper dialects. The Ljubljana dialect has also been used as a literary means in novels, such as in the novelNekdo drug byBranko Gradišnik,[154] or in poems, such asPika Nogavička (Slovene forPippi Longstocking) byAndrej Rozman - Roza.[155]
The central position of Ljubljana and its dialect had crucial impact[153] on the development of the Slovenian language. It was the speech of 16th century Ljubljana thatPrimož Trubar a SlovenianProtestant Reformer took as a foundation of what later became standardSlovenian language, with a small addition of his native speech, theLower Carniolan dialect.[153][156] While in Ljubljana, he lived in a house, on today's Ribji trg, in the oldest part of the city. Living in Ljubljana had a profound impact on his work; he considered Ljubljana the capital of allSlovenes, not only because of its central position in the heart of theSlovene lands, but also because it always had an essentially Slovene character. Most of its inhabitants spoke Slovene as their mother tongue, unlike other cities in today'sSlovenia. It is estimated that in Trubar's time around 70% of Ljubljana's 4000 inhabitants attended mass in Slovene.[153] Trubar considered Ljubljana's speech most suitable, since it sounded much more noble than his own simple dialect of his hometownRašica.[157] Trubar's choice was later adopted also by other Protestant writers in the 16th century, and ultimately led to a formation of a more standard language.
Interior of the Slovenian Railway MuseumMain building of the Slovenian National Gallery
Ljubljana has numerousart galleries and museums. The first purpose-built art gallery in Ljubljana was theJakopič Pavilion, which was in the first half of the 20th century the central exhibition venue of Slovene artists. In the early 1960s, it was succeeded byLjubljana City Art Gallery, which has presented a number of modern Slovene and foreign artists. In 2010, there were 14 museums and 56 art galleries in Ljubljana.[161] There is for example an architecture museum,a railway museum, a school museum, a sports museum, a museum of modern art, a museum of contemporary art, abrewery museum, theSlovenian Museum of Natural History and the Slovene Ethnographic Museum.[160] TheNational Gallery (Narodna galerija), founded in 1918,[70] and theMuseum of Modern Art (Moderna galerija) exhibit themost influential Slovenian artists. In 2006, the museums received 264,470 visitors, the galleries 403,890 and the theatres 396,440.[161] TheMetelkova Museum of Contemporary Art (Muzej sodobne umetnosti Metelkova), opened in 2011,[162] hosts simultaneous exhibitions, a research library, archives, and a bookshop. TheŠkuc Gallery is a contemporary art gallery that opened in 1978.
Cankar Hall is the largest Slovenian cultural and congress center with multiple halls and a large foyer in which art film festivals, artistic performances, book fairs, and other cultural events are held.
The cinema in Ljubljana appeared for the first time at the turn of the 20th century, and quickly gained popularity among the residents. After World War II, theCinema Company Ljubljana, later namedLjubljana Cinematographers, was established and managed a number of already functioning movie theatres in Ljubljana, including the only Yugoslav children's theatre. Cinema festivals took place in the 1960s, and acinematheque opened its doors in 1963. With the advent of television, video, and recently the Internet, most cinema theatres in Ljubljana closed, and the cinema mainly moved toKolosej, amultiplex in theBTC City. It features twelve screens, including anIMAX 3D screen. The remaining theatres areKino Komuna,Kinodvor, where art movies are accompanied by events, and theSlovenian Cinematheque. TheSlovenian Cinematheque hosts the internationalLjubljana LGBT Film Festival which showcasesLGBT-themed films. Founded in 1984, it is the oldest film festival of its sort in Europe (with oldest ex SFRY LGBT+ march inLjubljana Pride).[163]
TheSlovenian Philharmonics is the central music institution in Ljubljana and Slovenia. It holdsclassical music concerts of domestic and foreign performers as well as educates youth. It was established in 1701 as part ofAcademia operosorum Labacensis and is among the oldest such institutions in Europe. TheSlovene National Opera and Ballet Theatre also resides in Ljubljana, presenting a wide variety of domestic and foreign, modern and classic, opera, ballet and concert works. It serves as the national opera and ballet house. Music festivals are held in Ljubljana, chiefly inEuropean classical music and jazz, for instance theLjubljana Summer Festival (Ljubljanski poletni festival), andTrnfest.
Themodern dance was presented in Ljubljana for the first time at the end of the 19th century and developed rapidly since the end of the 1920s. Since the 1930s when in Ljubljana was founded aMary Wigman dance school, the first one for modern dance in Slovenia, the field has been intimately linked to the development in Europe and the United States.Ljubljana Dance Theatre is today the only venue in Ljubljana dedicated tocontemporary dance.
In July 2015, the 56th Ljubljana Jazz Festival was held. A participant event in the European Jazz Network, the festival took place over four days and included 19 concerts with artists from 19 countries, including a celebration of the 75th birthday ofJames "Blood" Ulmer.[164]
In the 1980s with the emergence ofsubcultures in Ljubljana, an alternative culture began to develop in Ljubljana organised around two student organisations.[165] This caused an influx of young people to the city centre, caused political and social changes, and led to the establishment of alternative art centres.[166]
Metelkova and Rog
A Ljubljana equivalent of Copenhagen'sFreetown Christiania, a self-proclaimed autonomousMetelkova neighbourhood, was set up in a former Austro-Hungarian barracks that was built in 1882.[167][168]
In 1993, the seven buildings and 12,500 square metres (135,000 sq ft) of space were turned into art galleries, artist studios, and seven nightclubs, including two LGBTQ+ venues, playing host to music from hardcore to jazz to dub to techno. Celica Hostel is adjacent to Metelkova[169] with rooms artistically decorated by Metelkova artists. A new part of the Museum of Modern Art is the nearby Museum of Contemporary Art.[170] Another alternative culture centre is located in the formerRog factory. BothMetelkova and theRog factory complex are near the city centre.
In 2023, the Rog factory underwent a complete renovation and rebranding, and it is now known as Center Rog. Center Rog has nineteen project studios and five residential apartments in addition to a new branch of the Ljubljana City Library (Rog Library), a large exhibition and event hall, a café, bistro, and restaurant, and several shops with local products.[171]
Šiška Cultural Quarter
Šiška Cultural Quarter hosts art groups and cultural organisations dedicated to contemporary and avant-garde arts.Kino Šiška Centre for Urban Culture is there, a venue offering concerts of indie, punk, and rock bands as well as exhibitions take place. The Museum of Transitory Art (MoTA) is a museum without a permanent collection or a fixed space. Its programs are realised in temporary physical and virtual spaces dedicated to advancing the research, production and presentation of transitory, experimental, and live art forms. Yearly MoTA organises the Sonica Festival. Ljudmila (since 1994), which strives to connect research practices, technologies, science, and art.
Tension between German and Slovene residents dominated the development of sport in Ljubljana in the 19th century. The first sports club in Ljubljana was theSouth Sokol Gymnastic Club (Gimnastično društvo Južni Sokol), established in 1863 and succeeded in 1868 by theLjubljana Sokol (Ljubljanski Sokol). It was the parent club of allSlovene Sokol clubs as well as an encouragement for the establishment of theCroatian Sokol club in Zagreb. Members were also active in culture and politics, striving for greater integration of the Slovenes from different Crown lands ofAustria-Hungary and for their cultural, political, and economic independence.
In 1885, German residents established one of the first sports clubs in the territory of nowadays Slovenia,Laibacher Bicycle-Club (Ljubljana Cycling Club). In 1887, Slovene cyclists established theSlovene Cyclists Club Ljubljana (Klub slovenskih biciklistov Ljubljana,KSBL).[172] In 1893 followed the first SloveneAlpine club, namedSlovene Alpine Club (Slovensko planinsko društvo), later succeeded by theAlpine Association of Slovenia (Planinska zveza Slovenije). Several of its branches operate in Ljubljana, the largest of them being theLjubljana Matica Alpine Club (Planinsko društvo Ljubljana-Matica). In 1900, the sports clubLaibacher Sportverein (English:Ljubljana Sports Club) was established by the city's German residents and functioned until 1909. In 1906, Slovenes organised themselves in its Slovene counterpart, the Ljubljana Sports Club (Ljubljanski športni klub). Its members were primarily interested inrowing, but also swimming and football. In 1911, the first Slovenian football club,Ilirija, started operating in the city. Winter sports already started to develop in the area of the nowadays Ljubljana before World War II.[173] In 1929, the firstice hockey club in Slovenia (then Yugoslavia),SK Ilirija, was established.
Each year since 1957, on 8–10 May, the recreationalWalk Along the Wire has taken place to mark the liberation of Ljubljana on 9 May 1945.[176] At the same occasion, a triples competition is run on the trail, and a few days later, a student-run from Prešeren Square to Ljubljana Castle is held. The last Sunday in October, theLjubljana Marathon and a few minor competition runs take place on the city streets. The event attracts several thousand runners each year.[177]
TheStožice Stadium, opened in August 2010 and located inStožice Sports Park in theBežigrad District, is the biggest football stadium in the country and the home of the NK Olimpija Ljubljana. It is one of the two main venues of theSlovenia national football team. The park also has an indoor arena, used for indoor sports such as basketball,handball andvolleyball and is the home venue ofKK Olimpija,RK Krim andACH Volley Bled among others. Besides football, the stadium is designed to host cultural events as well. Another stadium in the Bežigrad district,Bežigrad Stadium, is closed since 2008 and is deteriorating. It was built according to the plans ofJože Plečnik and was the home of theNK Olimpija Ljubljana, dissolved in 2004.Joc Pečečnik, a Slovenian multimillionaire, plans to renovate it.[178]
Šiška Sports Park is located inSpodnja Šiška, part of theŠiška District. It has a football stadium with five courts, an athletic hall, outdoor athletic areas, tennis courts, aBoules court, and asand volleyball court. The majority of competitions are inathletics. Another sports park in Spodnja Šiška isIlirija Sports Park, known primarily for its stadium with a speedway track. At the northern end of Tivoli Park stands theIlirija Swimming Pool Complex, which was built as part of a swimming and athletics venue following plans by Bloudek in the 1930s and has been nearly abandoned since then, but there are plans to renovate it.
A number of sport venues are located in Tivoli Park. An outdoor swimming pool in Tivoli, constructed by Bloudek in 1929, was the firstOlympic-size swimming pool in Yugoslavia. TheTivoli Recreational Centre in Tivoli is Ljubljana's largest recreational centre and has three swimming pools, saunas, a Boules court, a health club, and other facilities.[179] There are two skating rinks, a basketball court, a winter ice rink, and ten tennis courts in its outdoor area.[180] TheTivoli Hall consists of two halls. The smaller one accepts 4,050 spectators and is used for basketball matches. The larger one can accommodate 6,000 spectators and is primarily used for hockey, but also for basketball matches. The halls are also used for concerts and other cultural events. TheSlovenian Olympic Committee has its office in the building.[181]
Since the 1940s,[173] aski slope has been in use inGunclje,[183] in the northwestern part of the city.[184] It is 600 m (2,000 ft) long and has two ski lifts, its maximum incline is 60° and the difference in height from the top to the bottom is 155 m (509 ft).[183] Fiveski jumping hills stand near the ski slope.[173] Several Slovenian Olympic and World Cup medalists trained and competed there.[173][185] In addition, the Arena Triglav complex of six jumping hills is located in theŠiška District.[186][187] A ski jumping hill, built in 1954 to plans byStanko Bloudek, was located in Šiška nearVodnik Street (Vodnikova cesta) until 1976. International competitions for theKongsberg Cup were held there, attended by thousands of spectators.[188] The ice rinks in Ljubljana includeKoseze Pond and Tivoli Hall. In addition, in the 19th century and the early 20th century,Tivoli Pond and a marshy meadow inTrnovo, named Kern, were used for ice skating.[189]
BTC City is the largest shopping mall, sports, entertainment, and business area in Ljubljana
Industry is the most important employer, notably in thepharmaceuticals,petrochemicals andfood processing.[65] Other fields include banking, finance, transport, construction, skilled trades and services and tourism. The public sector provides jobs in education, culture,health care and local administration.[65]
Numerous companies and over 450 shops are located in theBTC City, the largest business, shopping, recreational, entertainment and cultural centre in Slovenia. It is visited each year by 21 million people.[193][194] It occupies an area of 475,000 m2 (5,110,000 sq ft) in theMoste District in the eastern part of Ljubljana.[195][196][197]
The city of Ljubljana is governed by theCity Municipality of Ljubljana (Slovene:Mestna občina Ljubljana; MOL), which is led by the city council. The president of the city council is called the mayor. Members of the city council and the mayor are elected in the local election, held every four years. Among other roles, the city council drafts the municipal budget, and is assisted by various boards active in the fields of health, sports, finances, education,environmental protection and tourism.[199] The municipality is subdivided into 17 districts represented by district councils. They work with the municipality council to make known residents' suggestions and prepare activities in their territories.[200][201]
Between 2002 and 2006,Danica Simšič was mayor of the municipality.[202] Since the municipal elections of 22 October 2006 until his confirmation as a deputy in theNational Assembly of Slovenian in December 2011,Zoran Janković, previously the managing director of theMercator retail chain, was the mayor of Ljubljana. In 2006, he won 62.99% of the popular vote.[203] On 10 October 2010, Janković was re-elected for another four-year term with 64.79% of the vote. From 2006 until October 2010, the majority on the city council (theZoran Janković List) held 23 of 45 seats.[203] On 10 October 2010, Janković's list won 25 out of 45 seats in the city council. From December 2011 onwards, when Janković's list won theearly parliamentary election, the deputy mayorAleš Čerin was decided by him to lead the municipality. Čerin did not hold the post of mayor.[204] After Janković had failed to be elected as the Prime Minister in theNational Assembly, he participated at the mayoral by-election on 25 March 2012 and was elected for the third time with 61% of the vote. He retook the leadership of the city council on 11 April 2012.[205]
Public order in Ljubljana is enforced by theLjubljana Police Directorate (Policijska uprava Ljubljana).[206] There are five areal police stations and four sectoral police stations in Ljubljana.[207] Public order and municipal traffic regulations are also supervised by thecity traffic wardens (Mestno redarstvo).[208] Ljubljana has a quiet and secure reputation.[207][209]
In 1869, Ljubljana had about 22,600 inhabitants,[210] a figure that grew to almost 60,000 by 1931.[70]
As of the 2022 census, Ljubljana had a population of 293,218 in the city proper.[218][219]
At the 2002 census, 39% of Ljubljana inhabitants wereCatholic; 30% had no religion, an unknown religion or did not reply; 19% atheist; 6%Eastern Orthodox; 5%Muslim; and the remaining 0.7% Protestant or another religion.[220]
Approximately 91% of the population speaks Slovene as their primary native language. The second most-spoken language isBosnian, withSerbo-Croatian being the third most-spoken language.[221]
In Ljubljana today there are over 50 public elementary schools with over 20,000 pupils.[161][222] This also includes aninternational elementary school for foreign pupils. There are two private elementary schools: aWaldorf elementary school and aCatholic elementary school. In addition, there are several elementary music schools.
Historically the first school in Ljubljana belonged toTeutonic Knights and was established in the 13th century. It originally accepted only boys; girls were accepted from the beginning of the 16th century.Parochial schools are attested in the 13th century, atSt. Peter's Church and at Saint Nicholas's Church, the later Ljubljana Cathedral. Since 1291, there were also trade-oriented private schools in Ljubljana. At the beginning of the 17th century, there were six schools in Ljubljana and later three. A girls' school was established byPoor Clares, followed in 1703 by theUrsulines. Their school was for about 170 years the only public girls' school inCarniola. These schools were mainly private or established by the city.[223]
In 1775, the Austrian EmpressMaria Theresa proclaimedelementary education obligatory and Ljubljana got itsnormal school, intended as a learning place for teachers. In 1805, the first statemusic school was established in Ljubljana. In the time ofIllyrian Provinces, "école primaire", a unified four-year elementary school program with a greater emphasis on Slovene, was introduced. The first public schools, unrelated to religious education, appeared in 1868.
The first completeRealschule (technical grammar school) was established in Ljubljana in 1871.
In Ljubljana, there are ten public and three privategrammar schools. The public schools are divided into generalgymnasiums andclassical gymnasiums, the latter offering Latin and Greek as foreign languages. Some general schools offer internationally oriented European departments, and some offer sports departments, allowing students to more easily adjust their sport and school obligations. All state schools are free, but the number of students they can accept is limited. The private secondary schools include a Catholic grammar school and a Waldorf grammar school. There are also professional grammar schools in Ljubljana, offering economical, technical, or artistic subjects (visual arts, music). All grammar schools last four years and conclude with thematura exam.
Historically, upon a proposal byPrimož Trubar, theCarniolan Estates' School (1563–1598) was established in 1563 in the period ofSlovene Reformation. Its teaching languages were mainlyLatin andGreek, but alsoGerman andSlovene, and it was open for both sexes and all social strata. In 1597,Jesuits established theJesuit College (1597–1773), intended to transmit general education. In 1773, secondary education came under the control of the state. A number of reforms were implemented in the 19th century; there was more emphasis on general knowledge and religious education was removed from state secondary schools. In 1910, there were 29 secondary schools in Ljubljana, among them classical and real gymnasiums andRealschules (technical secondary schools).
The main building of theUniversity of Ljubljana, formerly the seat of the Carniolan Parliament
In 2011, the University had 23 faculties and three academies, located around Ljubljana. They offer Slovene-language courses in medicine,applied sciences, arts, law, administration, natural sciences, and other subjects.[224] The university has more than 63,000 students and some 4,000 teaching faculty.[222] Students make up one-seventh of Ljubljana's population, giving the city a youthful character.[222][225]
Historically, higher schools offering the study of general medicine, surgery, architecture, law and theology, started to operate in Ljubljana under theFrench annexation of Slovene territory, in 1810–1811. The Austro-Hungarian Empire never allowed Slovenes to establish their own university in Ljubljana, and theUniversity of Ljubljana, Slovenia's most important university, was founded in 1919 after Slovenes joined the first Yugoslavia.[70][222] When it was founded, the university comprised five faculties: law, philosophy, technology, theology and medicine. From the beginning, the seat of the university has been atCongress Square in a building that served as the State Mansion of Carniola from 1902 to 1918.
The second largest university library in Ljubljana is theCentral Technological Library, the national library and information hub for natural sciences and technology.
Municipal Library and other libraries
The MunicipalCity Library of Ljubljana, established in 2008, is the central regional library and the largest Slovenian general public library. In 2011, it held 1,657,000 volumes, among these 1,432,000 books and a multitude of other resources in 36 branches.[227] Altogether, there are 5 general public libraries and over 140 specialised libraries in Ljubljana.[161]
The first libraries in Ljubljana were located inmonasteries. The first public library was theCarniolan Estates' Library, established in 1569 by Primož Trubar. In the 17th century, theJesuit Library collected numerous works, particularly about mathematics. In 1707, theSeminary Library was established; it is the first and oldest public scientific library in Slovenia. Around 1774, after the dissolution of the Jesuits, theLyceum Library was formed from the remains of the Jesuit Library as well as several monastery libraries.
The first society of the leading scientists and public workers in Carniola was theDismas Fraternity (Latin:Societas Unitorum), formed in Ljubljana in 1688.[229] In 1693, theAcademia Operosorum Labacensium was founded and lasted with an interruption until the end of the 18th century. The next academy in Ljubljana, theSlovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, was not established until 1938.
Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport (ICAO code LJLJ; IATA code LJU), located 26 km (16 mi) northwest of the city, has flights to numerous European destinations. The destinations are mainly European.[230] This airport has superseded theoriginal Ljubljana airport, in operation from 1933 until 1963.[231][232] It was located in the Municipality of Polje (nowadays theMoste District), on a plain between Ljubljanica and Sava next to the railroad in Moste.[232] There was a military airport in Šiška from 1918 until 1929.[233]
Ljubljana is located where Slovenia's two main motorways intersect,[242] connecting the motorway route from east to west, in line withPan-European Corridor V, and the motorway in the north–south direction, in line withPan-European Corridor X.[243] The city is linked to the southwest byA1-E70 to the Italian cities ofTrieste andVenice and the Croatian port ofRijeka.[244] To the north,A1-E57 leads toMaribor,Graz andVienna. To the east,A2-E70 links it with the Croatian capitalZagreb, from where one can go toHungary or important cities of the former Yugoslavia, such asBelgrade.[244] To the northwest,A2-E61 goes to the Austrian towns ofKlagenfurt andSalzburg, making it an important entry point fornorthern European tourists.[244] Atoll sticker system has been in use on theLjubljana Ring Road since 1 July 2008.[245][246] The centre of the city is more difficult to access especially in the peak hours due to long arteries with traffic lights and a large number of daily commuters.[247] The core city centre has been closed for motor traffic since September 2007 (except for residents with permissions), creating apedestrian zone aroundPrešeren Square.[248]
The historicalLjubljana tram system was completed in 1901 and was replaced by buses in 1928,[249] which were in turn abolished and replaced by trams in 1931[249] with its final length of 18.5 km (11.5 mi) in 1940.[250] In 1959, it was abolished in favor of automobiles;[251] the tracks were dismantled and tram cars were transferred toOsijek andSubotica.[252] Reintroduction of an actual tram system to Ljubljana has been proposed repeatedly in the 2000s.[253][254]
There are numerous taxi companies in the city.
Older type of city bus on the streets of Ljubljana
TheLjubljana Bus Station, the Ljubljana central bus hub, is located next to the Ljubljana railway station. The city bus network, run by theLjubljana Passenger Transport (LPP) company, is Ljubljana's most widely used means ofpublic transport. The fleet is relatively modern. The number of dedicated bus lanes is limited, which can cause problems in peak hours when traffic becomes congested.[255] Bus rides may be paid with theUrbana payment card (also used for the funicular) or with amobile phone. Sometimes the buses are calledtrole (referring totrolley poles), harking back to the 1951–1971 days when Ljubljana hadtrolleybus (trolejbus) service.[256] There were fivetrolleybus lines in Ljubljana, until 1958 alongside the tram.[251]
Another means of public road transport in the city centre is the Cavalier (Kavalir), an electricshuttle bus vehicle operated by LPP since May 2009. There are three such vehicles in Ljubljana. The ride is free and there are no stations because it can be stopped anywhere. It can carry up to five passengers; most of them are elderly people and tourists.[257] The Cavalier drives in thecar-free zone in the Ljubljana downtown. The first line linksČop Street,Wolf Street and theHribar Embankment, whereas the second linksTown Square,Upper Square, andOld Square.[258] There is also atrackless train (tractor with wagons decorated to look like a train) for tourists in Ljubljana, linkingCyril and Methodius Square in the city centre with Ljubljana Castle.[259]
BicikeLJ, a Ljubljana-based self-service bicycle network, is free of charge for the first hour.
There is a considerable amount ofbicycle traffic in Ljubljana, especially in the warmer months of the year. It is also possible to rent a bike. Since May 2011, theBicikeLJ, a self-servicebicycle rental system offers the residents and visitors of Ljubljana 600 bicycles and more than 600 parking spots at 60 stations in the wider city centre area. The daily number of rentals is around 2,500.[260][261] There was an option to rent a bike even before the establishment of BicikeLJ.[262]
There are still some conditions for cyclists in Ljubljana that have been criticised, including cycle lanes in poor condition and constructed in a way that motorised traffic is privileged. There are also many one-way streets which therefore cannot be used as alternate routes so it is difficult to legally travel by bicycle through the city centre.[263][264] Through years, some prohibitions have been partially abolished by markingcycle lanes on the pavement.[265][266] Nevertheless, the situation has been steadily improving; in 2015, Ljubljana placed 13th in a ranking of the world's most bicycle-friendly cities.[267] In 2016, Ljubljana was 8th on the Copenhagenize list.[268]
The river transport on the Ljubljanica and the Sava was the main means of cargo transport to and from the city until the mid-19th century, when railroads were built. Today, the Ljubljanica is used by a number of tourist boats, with wharves under theButchers' Bridge, atFish Square, atCourt Square, atBreg, at thePoljane Embankment, and elsewhere.
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