During theRenaissance, Livorno was designed as an "ideal town". Developing considerably from the second half of the16th century by the will of theHouse of Medici, Livorno was an importantfree port. Its intense commercial activity was largely dominated by foreign traders. Also the seat of consulates and shipping companies, it became the main port-city of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany.[10] The high status of a multiethnic and multicultural Livorno lasted until the second half of the nineteenth century, when it was surpassed by other cities. Evidence of that prosperous time can be seen in the many churches, villas, and palaces of the city.[11]
Livorno is considered to be the most modern among all the Tuscan cities, and is the third most-populous of the region, afterFlorence andPrato.[12][13]
The origins of Livorno are controversial, although the place was inhabited since theNeolithic Age. This is documented by the worked bones, and pieces of copper and ceramic found on theLivorno Hills in a cave between Ardenza and Montenero. TheEtruscan settlement was called Labro.[14]
The construction of theVia Aurelia coincided with the occupation of the region by theRomans. They are also known for theirtoponyms and the ruins of towers. The natural cove called Liburna is a reference to the type of ship, theliburna, adopted byRoman navy from theLiburnians. Other ancient toponyms includeSalviano (Salvius) andAntignano (Ante ignem), which was the place situated beforeArdenza (Ardentia), where beacons directed the ships toPorto Pisano.Cicero mentioned Liburna in a letter to his brother, in which he called itLabrone.[15]
Livorna is mentioned for the first time in 1017 as a small coastal village, the port and the remains of a Roman tower under the rule ofLucca. In 1077, a tower was built byMatilda of Tuscany. TheRepublic of Pisa owned Livorna from 1103 and built a quadrangular fort calledQuadratura dei Pisani ("Quarter of the Pisans") to defend the port.[11]Porto Pisano was destroyed after the crushing defeat of the Pisan fleet in theBattle of Meloria in 1284.[16]
In 1399, Pisa sold Livorna to theVisconti of Milan; in 1405 it was sold to theRepublic of Genoa; and on 28 August 1421 it was bought by theRepublic of Florence.[11] The name 'Leghorn' was derived from theGenoese name Ligorna.[17]Livorno was used certainly in the eighteenth century by Florentines.[17]
Between 1427 and 1429, a census counted 118 families in Livorno, including 423 persons. Monks, Jews, military personnel, and the homeless were not included in the census.[18] The only remainder of medieval Livorno is a fragment of two towers and a wall, located inside theFortezza Vecchia.
After the arrival of theMedici, the ruling dynasty of Florence, some modifications were made in the city. Between 1518 and 1534 theFortezza Vecchia was constructed, and the voluntary resettlement of the population to Livorno was stimulated. Livorno still remained a rather insignificant coastal fortress.[19] By 1551, the population had grown to 1562 residents.[11]
Seat of the crusading and corsairingOrder of Saint Stephen after 1561, distinctive for its aggressive approach towards the Muslim world, Livorno became a major Mediterraneanslave trade hub in the early modern period, rivalling Malta's.[20] Its share of slave population may have been over a 25% of the population.[21]
In 1593, the Duke's administration established theLeggi Livornine to regulate trade.[11] These laws protected merchant activities from crime andracketeering, and instituted laws regardinginternational trade. The laws established a well-regulated market and were in force until 1603. Also expanding Christian tolerance, the laws offered the right of publicfreedom of religion andamnesty to people having to gainpenance from clergy in order to conduct civil business. The Grand Duke attracted numerous Turks, Persians, Moors, Greeks, and Armenians, along withJewish immigrants. Sephardic Jews began to immigrate to Livorno in the late sixteenth century, following theAlhambra Decree and expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal. Livorno extended rights and privileges to them, and they contributed greatly to the mercantile wealth and scholarship in the city.
Livorno became an enlightened European city and one of the most important ports of the entireMediterranean Basin. Many Europeanforeigners moved to Livorno. These included Christian Protestant reformers who supported such leaders asMartin Luther,John Calvin, and others.French,Dutch, and English arrived, along with OrthodoxGreeks. Meanwhile, Jews continued to trade under their previous treaties with the Grand Duke. On 19 March 1606, Ferdinando I de' Medici elevated Livorno to the rank of city; the ceremony was held in theFortezza Vecchia Chapel ofFrancis of Assisi.
TheCounter-Reformation increased tensions among Christians; dissidents to thePapacy were targeted by various Catholic absolute rulers. Livorno's tolerance declined during theEuropean wars of religion. But, in the preceding period, the merchants of Livorno had developed a series of trading networks with Protestant Europe, and the Dutch, British, and Germans worked to retain these. In 1653 a naval battle, theBattle of Leghorn, was fought near Livorno during theFirst Anglo-Dutch War.
At the end of the 17th century, Livorno underwent a period of greaturban planning and expansion. Near the defensive pile of the Old Fortress, a new fortress was built, together with the town walls and the system of navigable canals through neighbourhoods. After the port ofPisa had silted up in the 13th century, its distance from the sea increased and it lost its dominance in trade. Livorno took over as the main port inTuscany. By 1745 Livorno's population had risen to 32,534.[11]
The more successful of the European powers re-established trading houses in the region, especially the British with theLevant Company. In turn, the trading networks grew, and with those, Britain's cultural contact with Tuscany. An increasing number of British writers, artists, philosophers, and travellers visited the area and developed the unique historical ties between the two communities. The British referred to the city in English as "Leghorn", derived from the Genoese term. Through the centuries, the city's trade fortunes fell and rose according to the success or failure of the Great Powers. The British and their Protestant allies were important to its trade.
Bird's-eye view of Livorno in the mid 19th century.
During theItalian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars of the late eighteenth century, Napoleon's troops occupied Livorno along with the rest of Tuscany. Under theContinental System, the French prohibited trade with Britain, and the economy of Livorno suffered greatly. The French had altogether taken over Tuscany by 1808, incorporating it into the Napoleonic empire. After theCongress of Vienna, Austrian rule replaced the French.
In 1861,Italy succeeded in itswars of unification. At that time the city counted 96,471 inhabitants.[11] Livorno andTuscany became part of the newKingdom of Italy and, as part of the Kingdom, the town lost its status as a free port. The city's commercial importance declined.
In the early 19th century, the AmericanElizabeth Ann Seton converted from Protestantism to Catholicism while visiting Italian friends in Livorno. She later was canonized as the first American-born saint.
During the 1930s, numerousvillas were built on the avenue along the sea inLiberty style based on designs by Cioni.[22] These added to the architectural richness of the city.
Livorno suffered extensive damage duringWorld War II. Many historic sites and buildings were destroyed by bombs of theAllies preceding their invasion of Italy, including thecathedral andSynagogue of Livorno.
Livorno has a hot-summermediterranean climate (Köppen climate classificationCsa). Summers have warm days with the heat lingering on throughout the night, hence going above thesubtropical threshold in spite of its relatively high latitude. Winters are mild for the latitude due to the moderating influence from theMediterranean Sea. Precipitation is in a wet winter/dry summer pattern as with all climates fitting the Mediterranean definition.
Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany issued in 1591 a decree encouragingArmenians to settle in Livorno to increase its trade with the Ottoman Empire and western Asia. By the beginning of the 17th century, Armenians operated 120 shops in town.[26] In 1701 the Armenian community, who were members of theArmenian Apostolic Church, were authorized to build their own church, which they dedicated toGregory the Illuminator. The project was byGiovanni Battista Foggini and the church was completed a few years later but did not open for worship until 1714.[27] The church had a Latin cross plant and a dome at the intersection of the transept and nave. Destroyed during World War II, it was partly restored in 2008 but is not open to worship.
The firstGreeks who settled in Livorno early in the 16th century were former mercenaries in the fleet ofCosimo de' Medici and their descendants. This community grew and became significant in the 18th and 19th centuries when Livorno became one of the principal hubs of the Mediterranean trade.[28] Most of the new Greek immigrants came from western Greece,Chios,Epirus andCappadocia.
Based on its status since the late 16th century as afree port (port franc) and the warehouses constructed for long-term storage of goods and grains from theLevant, until the late 19th century Livorno enjoyed a strong strategic position related to Greek mercantile interests in theBlack Sea, theMediterranean Sea, and the North Atlantic. The conflicts between Great Britain and France during theNapoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, with associated port embargoes, piracy, and confiscation of cargoes, played out to the advantage of those Greek merchants willing to accept risk. By the 1820s, Greek entrepreneurs gradually replaced the Protestant British, Dutch, French and other merchants who left the city.
The Greeks concentrated on the grain market, banking and ship-brokering. Cargoes of wheat from the Black Sea were received at Livorno, before being re-shipped to England. Returning ships carried textiles and other industrial goods, which Greek merchants shipped toAlexandria and other destinations in theOttoman Empire. Chians controlled much of the trade. In 1839 Livorno had ten major commercial houses, led primarily by ethnic Greeks and Jewish Italians.[29]
The ethnic Greek community (nazione) had a distinctive cultural and social identity based on their commonGreek Orthodox religion, language and history. In 1775 they established the Confraternity of Holy Trinity (Confraternita della SS. Trinità) and theChurch of the Santissima Trinità, Livorno [it], the second non-Catholic church in Tuscany. The Armenians had earlier built their own Orthodox church.[30] The community founded a Greek school, awarding scholarships for higher studies to young Greeks from thePeloponnese, Epirus, Chios orSmyrna. The community raised funds to support theGreek War of Independence of 1821, as well as various Greek communities in the Ottoman Empire and in Italy.
It also assisted non-Greeks. TheRodocanachi family financed the "School of Mutual Education" established in Livorno by the pedagogistEnrico Mayer [it]. The community contributed to founding a school for poor Catholic children. The local governing authorities recognized the contributions of distinguished members of the Greek community (e.g. members of the Papoudoff,Maurogordatos, Rodocanachi,Tossizza [el] and other families) and granted them titles of nobility. After unification and the founding of theKingdom of Italy in 1861, the Greek community in Livorno declined, as the privileges of the free port were rescinded.[31]
Livorno inhabitants speak a variant of the ItalianTuscan dialect, known as avernacolo.Il Vernacoliere, a satirical comic-style magazine printed chiefly in the Livornese dialect, was founded in 1982 and is now nationally distributed.[32]
Bagitto
Thebagitto was a Judæo-Italian regional dialect once used by theJewish community in Livorno. It was a language based on Italian, developed with words coming from Tuscan, Spanish, Portuguese,Hebrew andYiddish; the presence of Portuguese and Spanish words is due to the origin of the first Jews who came to Livorno, having been expelled from the Iberian peninsula in the late 15th century.
The city and itsport have continued as an important destination for travelers and tourists attracted to its historic buildings and setting. The port processes thousands ofcruise-ship passengers of the followingcruise line:
TheEni plant producesgasoline,diesel fuel,fuel oil andlubricants. Livorno refinery was established in 1936 byAzienda Nazionale Idrogenazione Combustibili (ANIC) but the plant was completely destroyed during World War II. The plant was rebuilt thanks to an agreement between the ANIC and theStandard Oil forming the STANIC. The production of the new plant raised from 700,000 to 2 million tons in 1955; nowadays the capacity of refining is 84,000barrels per day. The refinery, now property ofEni, is linked to theDarsena petroli (Oil dock) and toFirenze depots by two pipelines.[34]
The formerWhitehead Alenia Sistemi Subacquei (WASS) plant is based in Livorno, produced heavy and lighttorpedoes, anti-torpedo countermeasure systems for submarines and ships and sonar systems for underwater surveillance.[35] The factory came about in 1924 when theWhitehead Torpedo Works was purchased by Giuseppe Orlando, one of the owners of theCantiere navale fratelli Orlando of Livorno.Whitehead Moto Fides continued the production of torpedoes in a new plant which opened in 1977 and still operating, now owned byLeonardo S.p.A., renamed since 2018.
Another important role is played by the financial service, concentrated above all in via Cairoli, called the small city of Livorno, in which the headquarters of banks, financial institutions and insurance companies are concentrated, as well as the Post Office Building.
Tuaca liqueur was produced in Livorno until 2010; the famous distillery was closed and operations were brought to the United States by the new owners.Galliano is still made here and enjoyed by locals and tourists alike.
Livorno Aquarium, dedicated toDiacinto Cestoni, is the main in Tuscany. It is situated byTerrazza Mascagni on the seafront promenade. It was built on a project by Enrico Salvais and Luigi Pastore as a heliotherapy centre and was opened to the public on 20 June 1937. Destroyed during World War II was rebuilt in 1950;[36] in 1999 underwent extensive reconstruction, on a plan by Studio Gregotti and works carried out by Opera Laboratori Fiorentini, was opened definitely on 31 July 2010.[37]On the ground floor, the exhibition includes: Diacinto Cestoni Room which consists of 12 exhibition tanks, Mediterranean Area, Indus-Pacific tank, Caribbean Sea, Ligurian coast, Tropical waters, Greek-Roman archaeological coastal area. Livorno Aquarium has 33 exhibition tanks containing 2000 animals of 300 different species.[38]
Dedicated to painterGiovanni Fattori, the museum mainly featuring contemporary art from the 19th-century was inaugurated in 1994 and is placed insideVilla Mimbelli, an 18th-century construction surrounded by a vast park. The origin of the museum dates back to 1877 when theComune of Livorno founded a Civic Gallery where to collect all the artistic objects kept in several places around the town; in the same period was written the guideline of the gallery which hosted a collection of paintings of authors by Livorno.[39]
The Yeshivà Marini Museum is housed in a neoclassical building already place of worship as Marini Oratory since 1867; once was home of the Confraternity Malbish Arumin which was provided to help the city's poor.[40] In the post-war period was utilized as a synagogue in the waiting for the construction of the new one. The museum has a collection of liturgical objects coming from the old Synagogue destroyed in World War II. The commerce practised by the Jews community increased the property of the synagogue allowing a varied religious heritage of Dutch, Florentine, Venetian, Roman and Northern African origin. The display regard theTorah ark, thesefer Torah, paintings, religious objects as the Oriental-style woodenhekhal; the oldest and most important pieces went lost.[41]
The origins of the museum date back to 1929 and part of the objects went destroyed by World War II. After the war, the museum was reopened inside the Livorno Aquarium and only in 1980 was transferred to Villa Henderson. The museum is divided in several halls regarding the Man, the Man in the Mediterranean context, the Invertebrates, the Sea, the Flight in Nature. Inside the museum is a Planetarium and an Auditorium.
TheMuseo Mascagnano houses memorabilia, documents and operas by the greatcomposerPietro Mascagni, who lived here. Every year some of his operas are traditionally played during the lyric music season, which is organized by theGoldoni Theatre. Also theTerrazza Mascagni is situated on the boulevard on the seafront, is named in his honour.
Ferdinando II de' Medici considered, in 1629, the opportunity to enlarge the town, on project by Giovanni Battista Santi, toward north in an area included amongFortezza Vecchia andFortezza Nuova, in order to give an adequate space to the maritime and commercial activities. There was the need to build a mercantile district, close toPorto Mediceo, provided with houses and depots to store the merchandise and a system of canals to facilitate their transport. The newrione (district), calledVenezia Nuova [it], was built in an area gained to the sea, intersected by canals and linked to the town with bridges, for this reason, Venetians skilled workers were recruited.[42]
TheChiesa di Sant'Anna, dedicated toSaint Anne, was built in 1631 on the ground of the Arch confraternity of the Company of the Nativity;[43] in the same year Giovanni Battista Santi died and the control of the project passed to Giovanni Francesco Cantagallina though the works slowed down due to the lack of funds.[44]
A new impulse to the works was given in 1656 concerning the distribution of the spaces where to build other houses and stores; consequently arose the problem of the diverse oriented road scheme with respect to the axis ofPiazza d’Arme, it was resolved by adopting a road plan perpendicular to theNavicelli channel. The paving of the roads and along the canals inVenezia Nuova was provided in 1668,[45] while thePescheria Nuova (New fish market) was built in 1705 close to theScali del Pesce where the fish was unloaded.
In the 1700sVenezia Nuova was the district of the Consuls of the Nations and of the most important international retailers who had the warehouses filled with goods from everywhere waiting to be shipped by sea to the most different destinations. The palaces along the canals had the turrets from which to see the ships approaching the port, moreover, they had the stores at the canal level to facilitate the unloading of the goods from the boats.
TheVenezia Nuova district retains much of its original town planning and architectural features such as the bridges, narrowlanes, the houses of thenobility, churches asSanta Caterina da Siena andSan Ferdinando, and a dense network of canals that once served to link its warehouses to the port.
Ferdinando I projected to add four statues of moors prisoners at the pedestal of his monument and gave the task toPietro Tacca in 1602[46] but the monument remained in a corner of the square till 29 May 1617 when it was inaugurated byCosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.[47] In the meantime Tacca received the approval to add the four moors to the pedestal; the first two statues were fused inFlorence in 1622 and carried on the barges along theArno to Livorno; according to the tradition the young moor was named Morgiano and the older Alì Salentino;[47] the other two sculptures were installed in 1626. During the French occupation of Livorno, from 1796 to 1799, the monument was removed from Sextius Mollis commander of the French garrison because it represented an insult to thetyranny, as soon as the French left the town the monument was put back in its former place.[46]
During World War II the monument was transferred to a protected place in order to avoid being damaged by allied attacks, the statue of Ferdinando I was hidden in thePisa Charterhouse and the four moors in theMedici Villa at Poggio a Caiano.[48]The monument has been restored recently in 1990 and 2013.
La Gran Conserva, orIl Cisternone, situated on what were the outskirts of 19th-century Livorno, is the largest and best known of the city's covered cisterns.
At the beginning of the 19th century arose the need to connect the Medicean road system of thePentagono del Buontalenti to the new eastern districts of the town, on the other side of theFosso Reale, and the requirement to dismantle the city gatePorta a Pisa. The solution adopted in 1844 was that of Luigi Bettarini which considered the coverage of theFosso Reale with an imposingvault, 240 meters long and 90 meters wide,[49] creating an elliptical paving. The portion of the canal covered by the new structure continued to be navigable.
The new square was commonly calledPiazza delVoltone until 1850, thenPiazza deiGranduchi in honour of the Lorraine dynasty until 1859, in the period of theItalian unification was named toCarlo Alberto until June 1946 when was given the current namePiazza dellaRepubblica. The square, adorned with 52 marble benches, 92 pillars[50] and two statues dedicated toFerdinand III by Francesco Pozzi were inaugurated on 8 September 1847[49] and that dedicated toLeopold II by Paolo Emilio Demi was installed on 6 June 1848.[49] The statue of Leopoldo II was damaged by the crowd on 6 May 1849 and removed from the square because the Emperor was seen as the symbol of the Austrian domination; the statue was placed inPiazzaXX Settembre in 1957.[51]
TheTerrazza Mascagni is a wide sinuous belvedere toward the sea with views to the Livorno hills, theTuscan Archipelago toCorsica, and thePort of Livorno. It is located on the site of theForte dei Cavalleggieri (Cavalrymen Fort) built in the 17th century byCosimo I de' Medici to deter pirate raids,[52] subsequently replaced by a leisure park in the 1800s, and a heliotherapy centre in the early 1900s. A newparterre, built between 1925 and 1928 by Enrico Salvais and Luigi Pastore, was formed by a series of flower beds and a walkway which follow the outline of the sea with numerous balustrades named afterCostanzo Ciano. TheTerrazza has a paved surface of 8,700 square meters formed by 34,800 black and white tiles placed as acheckerboard and 4,100balusters.[53] In 1932, agazebo for musical performances was built in the large square;[54] it was destroyed during World War II. In 1937 theLivorno Aquarium was constructed. After the war, theTerrazza was dedicated toPietro Mascagni and in 1994 it underwent a complete restoration using the same kind of materials originally employed; the works were completed on 10 July 1998 with the reconstruction of the gazebo.[55]
Livorno was elevated to the status ofcity on 19 March 1606 byFerdinando I de' Medici, the firstGonfaloniere Bernardetto Borromei and the Community representatives held their meetings in the Church of Saint Mary and Saint Julia. On 13 June 1646 a building, placed inVia del Porticciolo, was purchased for the sum of seven thousandducats, in order to accommodate the Community. It was evident that it was inadequate to the task and the Council deliberated, on 27 January 1720, the construction of the new town hall on the project by Giovanni del Fantasia.[56]
The new neo-renaissance palace, positioned betweenPalazzo della Dogana andPalazzo Granducale on the north side ofPiazza d’Arme, was partially destroyed by the 1742 earthquake. Restored in 1745 by Bernardino Ciurini and Antonio Fabbri a double white marble stairway and a small bell tower on the top of the façade were added. In 1867 the complex was enlarged with the acquisition of three other buildings in the back. With the settlement of thePodestà in thefascist period was carried out a new enlargement in 1929 by Enrico Salvais and Luigi Pastore transforming the adjacent former fire station in the council hall. Damaged by the bombing during World War II it was rebuilt and renovated under the direction of Primavera and was inaugurated in 1949 by the mayor Furio Diaz.[57]
The Cathedral of Saint Francis of Assisi andPiazza Grande restored
The cathedral of the town, commonly calledDuomo di Livorno, is dedicated toFrancis of Assisi,Mary, mother of Jesus, andJulia of Corsica, and was built in a central position of thePentagono del Buontalenti on the south side of Piazza Grande once named Piazza d’Arme. The original plan was drawn up byBernardo Buontalenti when he projected the new town. The construction began in June 1581 on a reviewed plan byAlessandro Pieroni under the direction of Antonio Cantagallina. The church had a rectangular plant with a single nave, the original wooden ceiling, executed from 1610 to 1614, was carved by Vincenzo Ricordati[58] and gilded with seven inserted paintings.Jacopo Ligozzi,Domenico Cresti andJacopo Chimenti decorated, from 1610 to 1614, three large paintings representing "St Francis with Child and the Virgin", the "Assumption of Mary" and the "Apotheosis of Ste Julia", the other four paintings were works by minor artists.[59] The simply façade had a marble porch with twin Doric columns surmounted by a terrace added in 1605 on a project by Alessandro Pieroni.[60]
Cathedral's nave
The church was consecrated on 19 February 1606 byMonsignor Nunzio Antonio Grimani; on request byFerdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1629, was elevated tocollegiate church and theCurato was substituted from aProposto having the functions of the Vicar of thearchbishop of Pisa.[59]The plant of the church was modified inChristian cross when in 1716 was added the first of two lateral chapels. The left side chapel, dedicated to theEucharist, was built on a project byGiovanni del Fantasia with frescoes by Giovanni Maria Terreni and the altar attributed toGiovanni Baratta, The right side chapel, dedicated toImmaculate Conception, was built in 1727 and was decorated with paintings byLuigi Ademollo. The Collegiata in 1806 was elevated tocathedral and in 1817 was added the bell tower 50 meters high on project by Gaspero Pampaloni.[61]The cathedral was completely destroyed in 1943 from the Allied bombardment during World War II; it was then rebuilt respecting the original structure except for the two marble porches added to thetransepts and was consecrated on 21 December 1952 byBishop Giovanni Piccioni.[59]
Since 2006, on the occasion of the bicentennial of theRoman Catholic Diocese of Livorno, the "Christ Crowned with Thorns", byFra Angelico, was displayed in the Chapel of the Eucharist.
The Church of the Madonna is placed on the street of the same name which connects directly the city centre with the districtVenezia Nuova through theJohn of Nepomuk bridge. According to tradition the church was built to host the statute ofOur Lady of Mount Carmel subtracted from a Turkish ship.[62] The church was important as it was a place of worship for foreign communities.Ferdinando I de' Medici gave the church to theFranciscan which had the nearby Oratory of Saints Cosmas and Damian. The construction began on 25 March 1607 on a project byAlessandro Pieroni and was completed in 1611; the church at first was dedicated toSaint Mary,Saint Francis andSaints Cosmas and Damian but in 1638 was dedicated to theImmaculate Conception following enlargement of the building.
The church has a rectangular plan with a single nave andgroin vault, on each side, there are the three altars of the foreign Nations. The altar of the French Nation was built in 1613 and the painting, by Matteo Rosselli, representsSaint Louis. The altar of the Corsican Nation, which at the time was under the control of theRepublic of Genoa, has a painting representingJohn the Evangelist. The altar of the Portuguese Nation, built in the 17th century, had a wooden statue of Saint Mary until 1728 when this was positioned near the main altar and replaced by one ofAnthony of Padua. The altar of the Dutch-German Nation is dedicated toAndrew the Apostle.[63] Outside the body of the building, separated by a railing, is a Chapel dedicate to theMadonna di Montenero built in 1631.[64] The simple façade was covered in white marble in 1972.
The Church of theMost Holy Annunciation is located in the central street ofVia della Madonna, not far from theArmenian community Church ofGregory the Illuminator and theChurch of the Madonna. The church is called Unite Greeks too because was the worship place for theGreek community ofByzantine Rite who once lived in Livorno. At the end of the 16th century, numerous Greeks came to Tuscany to take service aboard thegalleys of theOrder of Saint Stephen. The church was built in 1601 on a project byAlessandro Pieroni, was completed in 1605 and consecrated on 25 March 1606.[65] Thebaroque façade was built in 1708 presumably on a project byGiovanni Baratta with a triangularpediment andDoric order and was decorated by the statues of Meekness and Innocence by Andrea Vaccà. The interior has a single nave and the ceiling is adorned by acoffer structure with a central painting representing the Annunciation by Giovanni Domenico Ferretti (1750).[66] The precious woodenIconostasis in Byzantine style date back to 1641 and has three doors painted by Agostino Wanonbrachen in 1751; on the central door is represented the Most Holy Annunciation andBasil of Caesarea,Gregory of Nazianzus,John Chrysostom andAthanasius of Alexandria; in the right door is painted theNativity of Jesus and the four Apostles, in the left door is represented theAdoration of the Shepherds.[67]The church was entirely destroyed by the bombings during World War II and the restoration was completed in 1985.
Santa Maria del Soccorso:Neoclassical Marian votive church in central Livorno. The tall brick church façade is located scenically at the end ofVia Magenta, and has a park surrounding it. In front is a Monument to Fallen Soldiers (caduti) in the first World War.
Old English Cemetery: oldest foreign Protestant burial ground in Italy. It was founded around 1645 and contains over 300 Carrara marble graves of notable people from 10 different nationalities.Tobias Smollett andFrancis Horner were buried here, but also some of the friends ofByron andShelley and the husband ofSaint Elizabeth Seton. The cemetery was closed in 1839 and a new one, still active, was opened.
Sanctuary of Montenero: Marian sanctuary atop a hill outside Livorno, dedicated toOur Lady of Graces, the patron saint of Tuscany, is a destination forpilgrims. It is famous for the adjacent gallery, decorated withex-voto, chiefly related to events of miraculous rescues of people at sea.
Temple of the Dutch German Congregation: known more simply as the Dutch-German Church, is situated in Livorno, on the stretch of theFosso Reale canal that runs betweenPiazza della Repubblica andPiazza Cavour.
The origin ofFortezza Vecchia takes place not far from what once wasPorto Pisano (Pisan Port) where a square tower was built in 1077, on request ofMatilda of Tuscany, on the remains of a Roman tower; in 1241 the Pisans built a massive cylindrical tower, 30 meters high erroneously calledMastio di Matilde (Matilda keep).[68] Pisa realized the strategic importance of the castle of Livorno which owned since 1103 and in 1377 theDogeGambacorti of theRepublic of Pisa built a quadrangular Fort calledQuadratura dei Pisani (Quartered of the Pisans) on plans attributed toPuccio di Landuccio andFrancesco di Giovanni Giordani. In 1392 this fort was connected to a wall in order to defend better the town and theDarsena.[69] Livorno, in 1405, was sold to Genoa which reinforced the defences, building three forts under the Quartered, afterwards Livorno was bought fromFlorence on 28 August 1421 at the price of 100.000Tuscan florin.[11]The project to buildFortezza Vecchia was commissioned toAntonio da Sangallo the Elder in 1506, the fortress had to incorporate the existing Pisan and Genovese constructions.[70]
Matilda keep andCanaviglia bastion
The works started in 1518 on the order ofCardinal Giulio De' Medici under the supervision ofNicolao da Pietrasanta. The construction was suspended since the popular revolt forced theMedici in exile and was resumed in 1530 on their return.Fortezza Vecchia is a massive fortification completed on 1 April 1534 underAlessandro de' Medici; it was built in red-brick with sloping walls and the interposition of clear stones, it has a quadrangular plant with a perimeter of 1500 meters and was equipped with 24 cannons to protect each side.[68] One of the corners directs inside to join the Quartered of the Pisans and Matilda and Genoa keep; the three others are protected by triangularbastions with rounded tips. The bastion towards the north is calledCapitana because there moored the mainGalley, to the east isAmpolletta since housed the sand-glass used to control the guard duty, to the west is theCanaviglia derived fromCavaniglia the name of the commander of the galleys of the Grand Ducky of Tuscany. The land on the side toward the town was excavated in order to have the fortress surrounded by the sea for better defence.Cosimo I de' Medici built in 1544 an imposing palace, overlooking theVecchia Darsena, above the Quartered of the Pisans which went destroyed during World War II. The successorFrancesco I de' Medici built a small palace toward the sea, later becamePorto Mediceo, on the top of Canaviglia bastion situated at the entrance ofVecchia Darsena. On the opposite side was built a church dedicated to Saint Francis where on 19 March 1606Ferdinando I de' Medici elevated Livorno to the status ofcity.[68]Fortezza Vecchia changed its function to the coming of theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine in 1737, by a defensive structure to a military college for officers of the Army of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany (1769) and afterwards in garrison (1795).
The origin ofFortezza Nuova (New fortress) took place towards the end of the 1500s, by the adjustment of theBaluardoSan Francesco (Saint Francis rampart) and theBaluardoSanta Barbara (Saint Barbara rampant). The project was commissioned byCosimo I toBernardo Buontalenti with the intention to develop a new urban plan of the town that led to a pentagonal shape surrounded by canals.
The original project was then modified byDon Giovanni de' Medici, Claudio Cogorano andAlessandro Pieroni to allow the construction of theFortezza Nuova in order to strengthen the military apparatus of the town. The works started on 10 January 1590 and ended in 1604, the result is a considerable fortification, in stones and red bricks, with a polygonal plant surrounded by water; the new modification brought to the construction of theForte San Pietro (Saint Peter fort) to defend theVenezia Nuova quarter.[71]
In 1629 part of the fortress was demolished to permit the building of theVenezia Nuova and theSan Marco quarters that was commissioned byFerdinando II.[72] TheFortezza Nuova has been used for military purpose until the end of World War II, inside were built barracks and warehouses and a chapel dedicated to theImmaculate Conception.[73]
The fortress was heavily damaged during World War II with the destruction of most parts of the buildings, the restoration was completed in 1972 and the superior part is used at present as a public park and centre for events and displays.
Francesco I de' Medici gave toBernardo Buontalenti in 1575 the task to project theideal town in order to transform Livorno from a fishing village in a fortified town to accommodate 12,000 inhabitants,[74] to include the original settlement and theFortezza Vecchia, capable to become the trade centre of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. The development of the project led to a pentagonal plant as in use in theRenaissance period, each side 600 meters long, with defensive walls, rampant and five bastions at the vertices, surrounded by canals; the fifth bastion coincided withFortezza Vecchia. The plan gave no information regarding the function of the new urban area, indicating only a series of building blocks within a road system absolutely orthogonal,cardo andDecumanus Maximus.[75]The road axis from north to south (cardo) underline the direction that united the centre of the town with a significant place as theSanctuary of Montenero; the axis from west to east (decumanus) linked theBaluardo Santa Giulia toBaluardo Sant’Andrea.[76]In August 1576 was created the Office of theFabbrica di Livorno with the task of supervising the construction and Alessandro Puccini was the chief superintendent.[77]
Francesco I de' Medici laid the first stone for the construction of theBaluardo di San Francesco (Saint Francis rampant) of the new town on 28 March 1577; the works went on with several changes compared with the original plan including the construction of theFortezza Nuova.[76]Livorno became a town, encircled by the navigableFosso Reale (Royal canal), with numerous palaces, warehouse, garrisons and custom-houses. The central street at that time wasVia Ferdinanda extended for 750 meters, later calledVia Grande, fromPorta Colonnella (Colonella city gate), in the proximity ofVecchia Darsena, toPorta Pisana (Pisan city gate). TheBaluardo Sant’Andrea was initiated in 1578 while theBaluardo Santa Giulia started in 1582.[78]
In 1594 it was decided to create a huge square, at halfway ofVia Ferdinanda, where to build the church of the new town. The church, which was built in a central position on the south side ofPiazza d’Arme, laterPiazza Grande, was completed in 1602 under the direction of Antonio Cantagaliina andAlessandro Pieroni.Piazza d’Arme was completed and enlarged with the oldPorticciolo dei Genovesi (Port of Genovesi) filled up with earth to make room to the building calledTre Palazzi (Three palaces); the square was adorned with a series of marble arcades attributed to Alessandro Pieroni.[79] ThePalazzo delPicchetto was built, on plan byGiovanni Battista Foggini and Giovanni del Fantasia in 1707, at the end ofVia Ferdinanda in the proximity ofPorta Pisana.
Since 1875 Livorno has ever had a public transport system managed by some companies such asATAM,ACIT,ATL andCTT Nord that changed over the years.Livorno bus network, as the entireRegione Toscana, is performed byAutolinee Toscane which manages, since 1 November 2021,[80] two High Mobility Lines (LAM Blu andLAM Rossa), seventeen urban lines, one school line and six suburban routes departing from Livorno across theProvince. Autolinee Toscane operates afunicular which connect lower Montenero to theSanctuary.[81][82]
ThePort of Livorno is one of the largest seaports both in Italy and the Mediterranean Sea as a whole.The Port has regular ferry links of the following operators with the following cities:
TheIndustrial Technical Institute named toGalileo Galilei was founded in 1825 as a School of Arts and Crafts in order to prepare the youngs to a profession in the sector of the mechanic industry as in the decorative arts. In 1923 theGentile Reform transformed the school in an Industrial Technical Institute formechanics andelectrical engineering, and in 1947 was addedchemistry. In the following years other specialities were added asphysics,electronics,biology,nuclear physics andinformatics. The institute is structured with 32 laboratories, 8 special school-rooms, library, film library, gymnasiums and machine-shops.[83]
The Nautical Institute Alfredo Cappellini was formed on 13 December 1863, with a Royal Law and it was the first Technical Institute in theProvince of Livorno. In 1921 it was transferred under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Navy then returned to the Ministry of Education. The school give the professional preparation to form theMerchant navy Officers.
TheBiblioteca Labronica [it] on the Viale della Libertà was founded in 1816, by the fellows of theAccademia Labronica, which was made public in 1840 and it was given to the Comune in 1854.[85][86] The civic library was dedicated to Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi in 1923[87] and take place inVilla Fabbricotti. According to the tradition, the origin of the villa date back to the Medicean period when an edifice was built as a suburban residence forFerdinando II de' Medici.Villa Fabbricotti received the name from its last owner Bernardo Fabbricotti fromCarrara, who acquired it from the English merchant Thomas Lloyd in 1881. Fabbricotti, following to adverse economic affairs, sold the Villa and the park to theComune in 1936. During World War II the building was used by the German command as headquarters, and later taken by the American forces;[88] in the post-war period was restored in order to adapt it into library. In the warehouse of theBiblioteca Labronica are stored: 120,000 books, 1,500manuscripts, 117incunables, 2,000 cinquecentine (is a book printed in the 16th century) and 60,000autographs; the library is organized with reading rooms with 80 places of capacity, 18 seats for consultation of manuscripts, 4 internet positions and a conference room with 60 seats. The library has a collection of autographs including those ofGalileo Galilei andGiacomo Leopardi, manuscripts byUgo Foscolo, and ancient books printed in Livorno since the 17th century, including theEncyclopédie printed in 1770 in Livorno by the ancientBagno dei forzati (Gaol of theconvicts).[89]
Il Tirreno is a regionalnewspaper, printed and published in Livorno and distributed inTuscany.Il Tirreno also features sixteen local editions around the whole region.
Il Vernacoliere
Il Vernacoliere is a satirical monthly magazine printed in Livorno founded in 1982 and distributed in central Italy.
^"Mar Ligure". Marina Militare. Retrieved16 May 2019.
^de Blij, H. J.; O. Muller, Peter; Nijman, Jan (2010)."Regions of the Realm".The World Today: Concepts and Regions in Geography. John Wiley & Sons. p. 63.ISBN9780470646380.
^Macdonald, A.M., ed. (1972).Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary. Chambers.
^Collins Concise Dictionary (Revised Third ed.). Glasgow: HarperCollins. 1995.
^The name "Leghorn" is not used much to refer to the city in English any more, with "Livorno" being favoured, although the traditional name is used now to refer to a popularbreed of chicken.
^Davis, Robert (2018). "The Geography of Slaving in the Early Modern Mediterranean, 1500–1800". In Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (eds.).Critical Readings on Global Slavery. Leiden:Brill. p. 872.ISBN978-90-04-34654-3.
^Vlami, D. (undated) "Filopatrides kai filogeneis Hellenes tou Livorno", part of the seriesThe Greece of Benefactors,Hemeresia newspaper, pp. 1–64. In Greek language. Need date of publication.
Vaccari, Olimpia; Frattarelli Fischer, Lucia; Mangio, Carlo; Panessa, Giangiacomo; Bettini, Maurizio (2006).Storia Illustrata di Livorno. Storie Illustrate (in Italian). Pisa: Pacini Editore. pp. 1–272.ISBN88-7781-713-5.
Villani, Stefano,Livorno: Diversis Gentibus Una, Giovanni Tarantino, Paola Von Wyss-Giacosa, eds,Twelve Cities – One Sea Early Modern Mediterranean Port Cities and their Inhabitants, Roma, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, pp. 37-53
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