| Part ofa series on |
| Baltic religion |
|---|
 |
Deities
|
Lithuanian mythology (Lithuanian:Lietuvių mitologija) is the mythology ofLithuanian polytheism, the religion of pre-Christian Lithuanians. Like otherIndo-Europeans,ancient Lithuanians maintained a polytheistic mythology and religious structure. In pre-Christian Lithuania, mythology was a part of polytheistic religion; after Christianisation, mythology survived mostly in folklore, customs, and festive rituals. Lithuanian mythology is very close to the mythology of otherBaltic nations, such asPrussians andLatvians, and is considered a part ofBaltic mythology.
Early Lithuanian religion and customs were based on oral tradition. Therefore, the first records about Lithuanian mythology and beliefs were made by travellers, Christian missionaries, chronicle writers, and historians. Original Lithuanian oral tradition partially survived in national ritual and festive songs and legends, which started to be written down in the 18th century. Contemporary scholarship posits that few reliable sources on Lithuanian paganism have survived. These sources are often formulaic, limited in informational depth, and subject to standardized interpretations, Marius Ščavinskas guesses.[1] Lithuanian scholar Marius Ščavinskas saysthe old (pagan) customs (about which we know practically nothing).[2]
The oldest known texts about Baltic religion were written byHerodotus (in which he describes theNeuri[3] in hisHistories) andTacitus (who mentions inGermania thatAestii wear boar figures and worship amother of gods). The Neuri were mentioned by Roman geographerPomponius Mela. In the 9th century, there is one attestation aboutPrussian (Aestii) funeral traditions byWulfstan. In the 11th century,Adam of Bremen mentioned Prussians living in Sambia and their holy groves. 12th century Muslim geographeral-Idrisi mentioned Balts inThe Book of Roger as worshipers of Holy Fire and their flourishing cityMadsun (Mdsūhn, Mrsunh, Marsūna).[4]
The first recorded Baltic myth,The Tale ofSovij, was detected as the complementary insert in the copy ofChronographia (Χρονογραφία) of Greek chroniclerJohn Malalas, fromAntioch, rewritten in 1262 in Lithuania. It is the first recorded Baltic myth and also the first placed among myths of other nations – Greek, Roman and others. TheTale of Sovij describes the establishing of cremation custom which was common among Lithuanians and other Baltic nations. The names of the Baltic godslt:Andajus,Perkūnas,lt:Žvorūna, and a smith-godlt:Teliavelis are mentioned.[5][6]
When thePrussian Crusade andLithuanian Crusade started, more first-hand knowledge about beliefs of Balts were recorded, but these records were mixed with propaganda about "infidels". One of the first valuable sources is the 1249Treaty of Christburg between the pagan Prussian clans, represented by a papal legate, and theTeutonic Knights. The treaty mentions the worship of Kurkas (Curche), the god of harvest and grain, as well as pagan priests (Tulissones vel Ligaschones) who performed certain rituals at funerals.[7][page needed]
Chronicon terrae Prussiae is a major source for information on the Teutonic Order's battles with Old Prussians and Lithuanians. It mentions Prussian religion and the center of Baltic religion –Romuva, whereKriwe-Kriwajto lives as a powerful priest who was held in high regard by the Prussians, Lithuanians, and Balts of Livonia. TheLivonian Rhymed Chronicle, which covers the period 1180 – 1343, contains records about ethical codex of the Lithuanians and the Baltic people.Descriptiones terrarum[8] was written by an anonymous author in the middle of 13th century. The author was a guest at the coronation of Lithuanian kingMindaugas. The author mentions that Lithuanians,Yotwingians, andNalsenians embraced Christianity quite easily, since their childhood nuns were usually Christian, but Christianity inSamogitia was introduced only with a sword.
Die Littauischen Wegeberichte (The descriptions of Lithuanian routes) is a compilation of 100 routes into the westernGrand Duchy of Lithuania prepared by the Teutonic Knights and their spies in 1384–1402. It contains descriptions of Lithuanian holy groves and sacrificial places (alkas). TheHypatian Codex, written in 1425, mentions Lithuanian gods and customs.Simon Grunau was the author ofPreussische Chronik, written sometime between 1517 and 1529. It became the main source for research of Prussian mythology and one of the main sources of Lithuanian mythology researchers and reconstructors. It was the first source which described the flag ofVaidevutis. The book however also contained many questionable ideas.[which?]
Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church mentions the Sun (Saulė[failed verification]) as one of the most important Lithuanian gods, which rejuvenates the world as its spirit. Like Romans, Lithuanians consecrate the Sunday entirely for the Sun. Although they are worshipping the Sun, they have no temples. The astronomy of Lithuanians is based on the Moon calendar.[9]
Enea Silvio Bartolomeo Piccolomini, who later becamePope Pius II, in the sectionde Europa of his bookHistoria rerum ubique gestarum, citesJerome of Prague, who attested Lithuanians worshiping the Sun and the iron hammer which was used to free the Sun from the tower. He also mentions Christian missionaries cutting off holy groves and oaks, which Lithuanians believed to be homes of the gods.[10]Jan Łasicki createdDe diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum et falsorum Christianorum (Concerning the gods of Samagitians, and other Sarmatians and false Christians), written c. 1582 and published in 1615. Although it has some important facts, it also contains many inaccuracies, as he did not know Lithuanian and relied on stories of others. The list of Lithuanian gods, provided by Jan Łasicki, is still considered as important and of interest for Lithuanian mythology. Later researchersTeodor Narbutt,Simonas Daukantas, andJonas Basanavičius relied on his work.
Matthäus Prätorius, in his two-volumeDeliciae Prussicae oder Preussische Schaubühne, written in 1690, collected facts about Prussian and Lithuanian rituals. He idealises the culture of Prussians and considers it belonging to the culture of the Antique world. TheSudovian Book is an anonymous work about the customs, religion, and daily life of the Prussians fromSambia (Semba). The manuscript was written in German in the 16th century. The book includes a list of Prussian gods, sorted in a generally descending order from sky to earth to underworld, and was an important source for reconstructing Baltic and Lithuanian mythology.
ThePomesanian statute book of 1340 is the earliest attested document of the customary law of the Balts, as well as the works ofDietrich of Nieheim (Cronica) andSebastian Münster (Cosmographia).
Lithuanian song collections were recorded byLiudvikas Rėza,Antanas Juška and many others in 19th century and later, among them mythological and ritual songs. For example, the song recorded by L. Rėza -Mėnuo saulužę vedė (Moon Married the Sun) reflects beliefs that L. Rėza stated were still alive at the moment of recording.[11] Folklore collections by, among others,Mečislovas Davainis-Silvestraitis (collected about 700 Samogitian fairy-tales and tales (sakmės)) andJonas Basanavičius (collected hundreds of songs, tales, melodies and riddles).
Surviving information aboutBaltic mythology in general is fragmented. As with most ancient Indo-European cultures (e.g. Greece and India), the original primary mode of transmission of seminal information such as myths, stories, and customs wasoral, the then-unnecessary custom of writing being introduced later during the period of the text-based culture of Christianity. Most of the early written accounts are very brief and made by foreigners, usually Christians, who disapproved of pagan traditions. Some academics regard some texts as inaccurate misunderstandings or even fabrications. In addition, many sources list many different names and different spellings, thus sometimes it is not clear if they are referring to the same thing.
Lithuania became Christianized between the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century, but Lithuanian polytheism survived for another two centuries, gradually losing influence and coherence as a religion. The last conceptions of the old religion survived approximately until the beginning of the 19th century. The relics of the old polytheistic religion were already interwoven with songs, tales, and other mythic stories. Gradually, Lithuanian polytheism customs and songs merged with the Christian tradition. In the beginning of the 20th century,Michał Pius Römer noted - "Lithuanian folklore culture having its sources in heathenism is in complete concord with Christianity".[12]
In 1883,Edmund Veckenstedt published a bookDie Mythen, Sagen und Legenden der Zamaiten (Litauer) (English:The myths, sagas and legends of the Samogitians (Lithuanians)).[13]
It is not easy to reconstruct Lithuanian mythology in its full form. Lithuanian mythology was not static, but constantly developed, so it did not remain in the same form over the longer periods.
J. Dlugosz tried to research myths and religion of ancient Lithuanians. He considered it close to the ancient culture of Rome. Almost all authors of Renaissance - J. Dlugosz, M. Stryjkowski, J. Lasicki, M. Prätorius, and others, relied not only on previous authors and chroniclers, but included facts and attestations of their time as well.[14] Since Renaissance scholars were quite knowledgeable about the culture of antique world, their interpretation of Lithuanian religion was affected by Roman or Greek cultures.
Many scholars preferred to write their own reconstructions of Lithuanian mythology, based also on historical, archaeological, and ethnographic data. The first such reconstruction was written by the Lithuanian historianTheodor Narbutt at the beginning of the 19th century.
The interest in Baltic and Lithuanian mythology was growing along with interest in the Lithuanian language amongIndo-Europeanists, since the conservative and native Baltic nations preserved very archaic language and cultural traditions.[15][16]
Italian linguistVittore Pisani [it], along with his research of Baltic languages, studied Lithuanian mythology.Two well-known attempts at reconstruction have been attempted more recently byMarija Gimbutas andAlgirdas Julien Greimas. According to G. Beresenevičius, it is impossible to reconstruct the Lithuanian mythology in its entirety, since only fragments survived. Marija Gimbutas explored Lithuanian and Baltic mythology using her method -archaeomythology, where archeological findings are interpreted through known mythology. V. Ivanov and V. Toporov used a material related to the Lithuanian spells to restore the Indo-European myths.[17]
The most modern academics exploring Lithuanian mythology in the second half of the 20th century wereNorbertas Vėlius andGintaras Beresnevičius.[14]
The pantheon of Lithuania was formed during thousands of years by merging pre-Indo-European and Indo-European traditions. Feminine gods such asŽemyna (goddess of the earth) are attributed to pre-Indo-European tradition,[18] whereas the expressive thunder-godPerkūnas is considered to derive fromIndo-European religion. The hierarchy of the gods depended also on social strata of ancient Lithuanian society.[19]
Dievas, also calledDievas senelis ('old man God'),Dangaus Dievas ('the God of heaven') - the supreme sky god. It is descended fromProto-Indo-European *deiwos, "celestial" or "shining", from the sameroot as*Dyēus, the reconstructed chief god of theProto-Indo-European pantheon. It relates to ancient GreekZeus (Ζευς orΔίας), LatinDius Fidius,[20] LuvianTiwat, GermanTiwaz. The nameDievas is being used in Christianity as the name ofGod.
Andajus (Andajas,Andojas) is mentioned in chronicles as the most powerful and highest god of Lithuanians. Lithuanians cried its name in a battle. It might just be an epithet of the supreme god -Dievas.[21]
Perkūnas, god of thunder, also synonymically calledDundulis,Bruzgulis,Dievaitis,Grumutis etc. It closely relates to other thunder gods in many Indo-European mythologies: VedicParjanya, CelticTaranis, GermanicThor, SlavicPerun. The Finnic and Mordvin/Erza thunder god namedPur'ginepaz shows in folklore themes that resemble the imagery of LithuanianPerkunas.[22][23]Perkūnas is the assistant and executor of Dievas's will. He is also associated with the oak tree.[24][25]
Dievo sūneliai (the "sons ofDievas") –Ašvieniai, pulling the carriage ofSaulė (the Sun) through the sky.[26][27] Like the Greek DioscuriCastor and Pollux, it is amytheme of theDivine twins common to the Indo-European mythology. Two well-accepted descendants of the Divine Twins, the VedicAśvins and the LithuanianAšvieniai, are linguisticcognates ultimately deriving from the Proto-Indo-European word for thehorse,*h₁éḱwos. They are related toSanskritáśva andAvestanaspā (fromIndo-Iranian*aćua), and toOld Lithuanianašva, all sharing the meaning of "mare".[28][29]
Velnias (Velas,Velinas) –chthonic god of theunderworld, related to the cult of dead.[30] The root of the word is the same as ofLithuanian:vėlė ('soul of the deceased'). After the introduction of Christianity, it was equated with evil, andVelnias became the Lithuanian name fordevil. In some tales,Velnias (the devil) was the first owner of fire. God sent a swallow, which managed tosteal the fire.[31]
Žemyna (Žemė,Žemelė) (fromLithuanian:žemė 'earth') is thegoddess of the earth. It relates toThracianZemele (mother earth), GreekSemelē (Σεμέλη).[32] She is usually regarded asmother goddess and one of the chief Lithuanian gods.Žemyna personifies the fertile earth and nourishes all life on earth, human, plant, and animal. The goddess is said to be married to eitherPerkūnas (thunder god) orPraamžius (manifestation of chief heavenly godDievas). Thus the couple formed the typicalIndo-European pair of mother-earth and father-sky. It was believed that each spring, the earth needs to be impregnated byPerkūnas - the heavens rain and thunder.Perkūnas unlocks (atrakina) the Earth. It was prohibited to plow or sow before the first thunder as the earth would be barren.[33]
Žvėrinė (Žvorūna,Žvorūnė) – is the goddess of hunting and forest animals.Medeina is the name in other sources.[34]
Medeina – the goddess of forest and hunting. Researchers suggests that she and Žvėrinė (Žvorūnė) could have been worshipped as the same goddess.[35]
Žemėpatis (fromLithuanian:žemė 'earth' andLithuanian:pàts 'autonomous decision maker, ruler'; or 'Earth Spouse'[36]) – god of the land, harvest, property, and homestead.[37]Martynas Mažvydas, in 1547, in hisCatechism, urged to abandon cult ofŽemėpatis.[38][39][40]
Žvaigždikis (Žvaigždystis, Žvaigždukas, Švaistikas) – the god of the stars, powerful god of light, who provided light for the crops, grass, and the animals. It was also known as Svaikstikas (Suaxtix, Swayxtix, Schwayxtix, Schwaytestix) byYotvingians.[41]
Gabija (also known as Gabieta, Gabeta, Matergabija, Pelengabija) is the spirit or goddess of thefire.[42] She is the protector of the family fireplace (šeimos židinys) and family. Her name is derived fromLithuanian:gaubti – to cover, to protect. Nobody was allowed to step on firewood, since it was considered a food for the fire goddess. Even today, there is a tradition of weddings in Lithuania to light a new symbolic family fireplace from the parents of the newlyweds.[43]
Laima (fromLithuanian:lemti – 'to destine') orLaimė – is the destiny-giver goddess.[44][45]
Bangpūtys (fromLithuanian:banga 'wave' andLithuanian:pūsti 'to blow' ) – god of the sea, wind, waves and storm.[46] Was worshipped by fishermen and seamen.[47][48]
Teliavelis/Kalevelis – a smith-god or the god of roads.[49] First mentioned in a 1262 copy ofChronographia (Χρονογραφία) of John Malalas asTeliavel. Lithuanian linguistKazimieras Būga reconstructed a previous form –Kalvelis (fromLithuanian:kalvis 'a smith' indiminutive form).[50]Teliavelis/Kalevelis freedSaulė (Sun) from the dark using his iron hammer.In Lithuanian fairy-tales recorded much later, there is very frequent opposition ofkalvis ('smith') andvelnias ('devil').
Pre-Christian Lithuanian mythology is known mainly through attested fragments recorded by chroniclers and folks songs; the existence of some mythological elements, known from later sources, has been confirmed by archaeological findings. The system of polytheistic beliefs is reflected in Lithuanian tales, such asJūratė and Kastytis,Eglė the Queen of Serpents, and the Myth ofSovij.
The next period of Lithuanian mythology started in the 15th century and lasted until approximately the middle of the 17th century. The myths of this period are mostly heroic, concerning the founding of the state of Lithuania. Perhaps two of the best known stories are those of the dream of the Grand DukeGediminas and the founding ofVilnius,[51] the capital of Lithuania, and ofŠventaragis' Valley, which also concerns the history of Vilnius. Many stories of this kind reflect actual historical events. Already, by the 16th century, there existed a non-unified pantheon; data from different sources did not correspond one with another, and local spirits, especially those of the economic field, became mixed up with more general gods and ascended to the level of gods.[52]
The third period began with the growing influence of Christianity and the activity of the Jesuits, roughly since the end of the 16th century. The earlier confrontational approach to the pre-Christian Lithuanian heritage among common people was abandoned, and attempts were made to use popular beliefs in missionary activities. This also led to the inclusion of Christian elements in mythic stories.
The last period of Lithuanian mythology began in the 19th century, when the importance of the old cultural heritage was admitted, not only by the upper classes, but by the nation more widely. The mythical stories of this period are mostly reflections of the earlier myths, considered not as being true, but as the encoded experiences of the past.
Stories, songs, and legends of this kind describe laws of nature and such natural processes as the change of seasons of the year, their connections with each other and with the existence of human beings. Nature is often described in terms of the human family; in one central example (found in many songs and stories), the sun is called the mother, the moon the father, and stars the sisters of human beings. Lithuanian mythology is rich in gods and minor gods of water, sky and earth. Holy groves were worshipped, especially beautiful and distinctive places –alka were selected for sacrifices for gods.
Fire is very often mentioned by chroniclers, when they were describing Lithuanian rituals. Algridas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, was even addressed as a "fire worshiper King of Lithuania" (τῷ πυρσολάτρῃ ῥηγὶ τῶν Λιτβῶν) in the documents of a patriarchNilus of Constantinople.[53]
Water was considered a primary element - legends describing the creation of the world, usually state that "at first there was nothing but water".[54]Springs were worshiped - they were considered holy. The river was seen as separating the areas of life and death. If the settlement was placed at the river, then the deceased were buried in another side of the river. Water sources were highly respected and it was tradition to keep any water - spring, well, river, lake clean. Cleanliness was associated with holiness.
Holy groves were considered not holy in itself, but as a home of gods.[55] Jerome of Prague was an ardent missionary in Lithuania, leading the chopping of the holy groves and desecration of Lithuanian sacred heathen places. Lithuanian women reachedVytautas the Great with plaints that they are losing their places ofDievas, the places where they prayed to the supreme god –Dievas to withhold the Sun or rain.[56] Now, when the holy groves are destroyed, they do not know where to search forDievas since it lost its home. Jerome of Prague was finally sent out of the country.
Celestial bodies – planets were seen as a family.Mėnulis (Moon) marriedSaulė (Sun) and they had seven daughters:Aušrinė (Morning Star –Venus),Vakarinė (Evening Star – Venus),Indraja (Jupiter),Vaivora or sonPažarinis in some versions (Mercury),Žiezdrė (Mars),Sėlija (Saturn), andŽemė (Earth). Three daughters lived close to their mother Saulė, another three were traveling.[57]
Grįžulo Ratai (also –Grigo Ratai,Perkūno Ratai,Vežimas) (Ursa Major) was imagined as a carriage for the Sun which was travelling through the sky,Mažieji Grįžulo Ratai (Ursa Minor) – a carriage for the daughter of Sun.[58]
Zodiac or Astrological signs were known as liberators of the Saulė (Sun) from the tower in which it was locked by the powerful king – the legend recorded byJerome of Prague in 14-15th century.[52]: 226
Legends (padavimai,sakmės) and myths are short stories explaining the local names, appearance of the lakes and rivers, other notable places like mounds or big stones.[59]
Lithuanian mythology serves as inspiration for Lithuanian artists. Many interpretations ofEglė – the Queen of Serpents were made in poetry and visual art. In modern Lithuanian music, polytheistic rituals andsutartinės songs were source of inspiration forBronius Kutavičius. Old Lithuanian names, related to nature and mythology, are often given to children. Many pagan traditions slightly transformed were adopted by the Christian religion in Lithuania. Oaks are still considered a special tree, and grass snakes are treated with care. Old songs and pagan culture serve as inspiration for rock and pop musicians.[61] There are alsomovements seeking to revive the Lithuanian pre-Christian religion.
Lithuania portal
Myths portalOn mythology:
On folktales:
