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One of four statues of chained slaves at the base of theMonument of the Four Moors inLivorno, Italy, whose models may have been actual slaves
Slavery is a social-economic system under which people are enslaved: deprived of personal freedom and forced to perform labor or services without compensation. These people are referred to as slaves, or as enslaved people.
The following is alist of notable historical people who were enslaved at some point during their lives, in alphabetical order byfirst name.
Abraham, an enslaved black man who carried messages between the frontier andCharles Town during wars with theCherokee, for which he was freed.[1][2][3]
Absalom Jones (1746–1818), formerly-enslaved African-American man who purchased his freedom, abolitionist and clergyman – first ordained black priest of theEpiscopal Church.
Addas (7th century) an enslavedChristian boy who lived inTaif during the time ofMuhammad, who was supposedly the first person from the western province of Taif to convert toIslam.[4][5]
Alam al-Malika (died 1130), enslaved singer who was promoted to become thede facto prime minister, adviser and ruler of the principality ofZubayd, in what is nowYemen.
Amanda America Dickson (1849–1893), the daughter of whiteGeorgianplanter David Dickson and Julia Frances Lewis, who was enslaved by Dickson's mother. Although legally enslaved until her emancipation after theAmerican Civil War, Amanda Dickson was raised as her father's favorite and inherited his $500,000 estate after his 1885 death.[14]
Archibald Grimké (1849–1930), born into slavery, the son of a white father, became an American lawyer, intellectual, journalist, diplomat and community leader.
Ayuba Suleiman Diallo (1701–1773), also known asJob ben Solomon, a Muslim of theBundu state in West Africa who was enslaved for two years inMaryland, freed in 1734, and later wrote memoirs that were published as one of the earliestslave narratives.
Balthild (c. 626–680), anAnglo-Saxon woman of elite birth who was sold into slavery as a young girl and served in the household ofErchinoald,mayor of the palace ofNeustria. Later she became queen consort by marriage toClovis II, and then regent during the minority of her sonClotaire. She abolished the practice of trading Christian slaves and sought the freedom of children sold into slavery. She wascanonized byPope Nicholas I about 200 years after her death.[23]
Bass Reeves (1838–1910), one of the first blackDeputy U.S. Marshals west of theMississippi River, credited with arresting over 3,000 felons as well as shooting and killing fourteen outlaws in self-defense.
Belinda Sutton's petition, reprinted
Belinda Sutton (1713–179?), born in Ghana, petitioned for support from her enslaver's estate, considered an earlyreparations case and inspired future activism.
Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), born into slavery, became an American educator, author and leader of the African-American community after theCivil War.
Brigid of Kildare, a majorIrish Saint. According to tradition, Brigid was born in the year 451 AD inFaughart,[28] just north ofDundalk[29][30] inCounty Louth,Ireland. Her mother was Brocca, a ChristianPict slave who had been baptized bySaint Patrick. They name her father as Dubhthach, a chieftain ofLeinster.[31] Dubthach's wife forced him to sell Brigid's mother to a druid when she became pregnant. Brigid herself was born into slavery. The child Brigid was said to have performed miracles, including healing and feeding the poor.[32] Around the age of ten, she was returned as a household servant to her father, where her habit of charity led her to donate his belongings to anyone who asked. In twoLives, Dubthach was so annoyed with her that he took her in a chariot tothe King of Leinster to sell her. While Dubthach was talking to the king, Brigid gave away his jewelled sword to a beggar to barter it for food to feed his family. The king recognized her holiness and convinced Dubthach to grant his daughter her freedom, after which she started her career as a well-known nun.[33]
Caenis (died 75 AD), a formerly-enslaved woman and secretary ofAntonia Minor (mother of the emperorClaudius) and the mistress of Roman emperorVespasian.
Cato (1786–1803), an enslaved man inCharleston, New York, who murdered twelve-year-old Mary Akins after an attempted rape. His confession was published in the murder literature of the time.[37][38][39]
Celia (died 1855), a woman convicted and executed for themurder of Robert Newsom, her enslaver. During thetrial,John Jameson argued she had killed him in self defense to stop Newsom from raping her.
Cevri Kalfa, an enslavedGeorgian girl at the sultan'sharem inIstanbul, who savedMahmud II's life and was rewarded for her bravery and loyalty by being appointedhaznedar usta, the chief treasurer of the imperialHarem.[40][41]
Cuffy (died 1763), was anAkan man who was captured in his nativeWest Africa, taken to work in the plantations of the Dutch colony ofBerbice in present-dayGuyana, and in 1763 led arevolt of more than 2,500 slaves against the colonial regime. Today, he is a national hero in Guyana.[46]
Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761–1804), born into slavery as the natural daughter of Maria Belle, an enslaved African woman in theWest Indies, andSir John Lindsay, a careerRoyal Navy officer. Lindsay took Belle with him when he returned to England in 1765, entrusting her raising to his uncleWilliam Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and his wife Elizabeth Murray, Countess of Mansfield. The Murrays educated Belle, bringing her up as a freegentlewoman at theirKenwood House, together with their niece,Lady Elizabeth Murray. Belle lived there for 30 years. In his will of 1793, Lord Mansfield confirmed her freedom and provided an outright sum and anannuity to her, making her an heiress.
Diego was a formerly-enslaved freedman closely associated with theElizabethan English navigatorFrancis Drake. In March 1573, Drake raidedDarien (in modernPanama), in which he was greatly aided byMaroons – Africans who had escaped from Spanish slave owners and were glad to help their English enemies. One of them was Diego, who proved a capable ship builder and accompanied Drake back to England. In 1577, whenQueen Elizabeth sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas – which eventually developed intoDrake circumnavigating the world – Diego was once again employed under Drake; his fluency inSpanish andEnglish would make him a useful interpreter when Spaniards or Spanish-speaking Portuguese were captured. He was employed as Drake's servant and was paid wages, just like the rest of the crew. Diego died while Drake's ship was crossing the Pacific, of wounds sustained earlier in the voyage. Drake was saddened at his death, Diego having become a good friend.[51][52]
Diocletian (244–312),Emperor of Rome, was by some sources born as the slave of Senator Anullinus. By other sources, it was Diocletian's father (whose own name is unknown) who was a slave, and was freed prior to the birth of his son, the future emperor.[53]
Dolly Johnson (born late 1820s, died after 1887), African-American woman from Tennessee, enslaved by PresidentAndrew Johnson, later a small small-business owner.[54]
Dorota Sitańska (diedafter 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, donated to the king of Poland by will and testament.[9]
Elias Polk (1806–1886), a conservative political activist of the 19th century.
Eliezer of Damascus,Abraham's slave and trusted manager of the Patriarch's household in the Hebrew Bible.
Elieser was a man enslaved by the family of Paulo de Pina,Portuguese Jews who moved to the Netherlands in 1610 to escape persecution and forced conversion in Portugal. He lived with the family in Amsterdam until his death in 1629 and was buried in the Beth Haim cemetery, oldest Jewish cemetery in the Netherlands. He appears to have been set free, eitherde jure or in practice, and to have been on near equal footing with the family that owned him back in Portugal – indicated by the fact that he attended the funeral of the wife of his master, Sara de Pina, and contributed to that occasion sixstuivers, and that he was buried alongside his (former) owners and alongside Jacob Israel Belmonte, the community's richest businessman. Elieser must have been converted to Judaism and widely accepted as Jewish, otherwise he would not have been buried inside the Jewish cemetery; the name "Elieser" was likely bestowed on him at conversion, recallingEliezer of Damascus. In recent years, Elieser's memory was taken up by members of theSurinamese community in the Netherlands, who erected a statue of him and hold an annual pilgrimage to his grave on what came to be known asElieser Day.[56]
Elisenda de Sant Climent (1220–1275), enslaved during a slave raid on Mallorca and placed in the harem of the emir in Tunis.
Eliza Hopewell, a woman enslaved by Confederate spyIsabella Maria Boyd ("Belle Boyd"). In 1862, she aided her owner's espionage activities, carrying messages to theConfederate Army in a hollowed-out watch case.[57]
Eliza Moore (1843–1948), one of the last proven African-American former slaves living in the United States.
Elizabeth Key Grinstead (1630–after 1665), the first woman of African ancestry in the North American colonies to sue for her freedom and win. Key and her infant son, John Grinstead, were freed on July 21, 1656, in the colony ofVirginia, based on the fact that her father was an Englishman and that she was a baptized Christian.
Ellen Craft (1826–1891), light-skinned wife of William Craft, who escaped with him from Georgia toPhiladelphia, by posing as a white woman and her slave, in a case that became famous.
Ellen More, an enslaved woman brought to the royal Scottish court
Emiline (age 23);Nancy (20);Lewis, brother of Nancy (16);Edward, brother of Emiline (13);Lewis andEdward, sons of Nancy (7);Ann, daughter of Nancy (5); andAmanda, daughter of Emiline (2), were freed in the 1852Lemmon v. New York court case after they were brought to New York by their Virginia owners.
Emily Edmonson (1835–1895), along with her sisterMary, joined an unsuccessful 1848 escape attempt known as thePearl incident, butHenry Ward Beecher and his church raised the funds to free them.
Enrique of Malacca, also known asHenry the Black, slave and interpreter ofFerdinand Magellan and possibly the first man to circumnavigate the globe in Magellan's voyage of 1519–1521.
Estevanico (1500–1539), also known asEsteban the Moor. In principle he was a slave of the Portuguese to, later, be a servant of the Spaniards. He was one of only four survivors of the ill-fatedNarváez expedition, later a guide in search of the fabledSeven Cities of Gold and possibly the first African person to arrive in what is nowArizona andNew Mexico.
Eucharis, a Greek bornfreedwoman of Roman Licinia, described in her epitaph in the 1st century AD as fourteen when she died, a child actress and a professional dancer.[59]
Eunus (died 132 BC), an enslaved Roman fromApamea in Syria, the leader of the slave uprising in theFirst Servile War in theRoman province of Sicily. Eunus rose to prominence in the movement through his reputation as a prophet and wonder-worker. He claimed to receive visions and communications from the goddessAtargatis, a prominent goddess in his homeland; he identified her with the SicilianDemeter. Some of his prophecies were that the rebel slaves would successfully capture the city ofEnna and that he would be a king some day.
Euphemia (died 520s), Empress of the Byzantine Empire by marriage to Justin I, originally a slave.
Exuperius (died 127), slave inPamphylia, Roman Anatolia and aChristian martyr. He and his family were killed for refusing to participate in pagan rites when their son was born.[62]
Fabia Arete, Ancient Roman actress and freedwoman who is referred to as an elite actress orarchimima who enjoyed a highly successful career and likely belonged to the minority of female actors to perform speaking parts.[63]
Felicitas (died 203), Christian martyr and saint.[64]
Francis Jackson (born 1815 to 1820), born free, he was kidnapped in 1850 and sold into slavery and was finally freed in 1855 with the resolution ofFrancis Jackson v. John W. Deshazer.
Francisco Menéndez, a man enslaved inSouth Carolina who escaped toSpanish Florida, where he served in the Spanish militia, leading the garrison established in 1738 atFort Mose. This site was the first legal free black community in what is now the United States.
Gabriel Prosser (1776–1800), leader of Virginia slave revolt.
Gaius Furius Chresimus, ancient Roman. As a freedman, he produced such crops from his small farm that he was accused of witching away other people's crops, but when he produced his agricultural implements in court, he was acquitted.Pliny the Elder recounts his tale as evidence that hard work is what counts in farming.[67]
George Colvocoresses (1816–1872), from Chios, Greece, who came to the United States and became a captain in the U.S. Navy, was briefly enslaved as a child.Colvos Passage is named after him.
George Griffin (1849–1897), born into slavery inMaryland and later freed; confidant of Mark Twain
George W. Hayes (1847–1933), a court crier and politician in Ohio of mixed African American and Native American heritage enslaved early in his life.
Gerónimo de Aguilar (1489–1531), a Franciscan friar, shipwrecked on the Yucatán Peninsula in 1511 and captured and enslaved by Mayans.
Gosala, a sixth-century BCascetic teacher of ancient India – a contemporary (and rival) ofGautama Buddha – was said to have been born into slavery, and became a naked ascetic after fleeing from his irate captor, who managed to grab hold of Gosala's garment and disrobe him as he fled.
Gordon, also known asWhipped Peter, an enslaved African-American man who escaped to aUnion Army camp from a plantation nearBaton Rouge, Louisiana in 1863. The images of Gordon'sscourged back taken during a medical examination were published inHarper's Weekly and providedNortherners visual evidence of the brutality of slavery. They inspired manyfree blacks to enlist in theUnion Army.[69]
Hark Olufs (1708–1754),Danish sailor, was captured byAlgerian pirates. Sold to theBey ofConstantine, he became Commander in Chief of the Bey's cavalry. He was released in 1735.
Harry, the plaintiff in the 1818Harry v. Decker & Hopkins decision by theSupreme Court of Mississippi (the first among U.S. southern states) to free a person from slavery solely on the basis of prior residence in a free territory.
Hafsa Sultan (died March 1534), the wife ofSelim I and the first valid sultan of the Ottoman Empire as the mother ofSuleiman the Magnificent. Her background is disputed but some historians hold that she was a slave.[73][74]
Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda, born inCartagena, was enslaved at the age of 13 when the ship bearing him to Spain for education sank off Florida. A Calusa chief enslaved him and used him as a translator until he was ransomed at 30.[77]
Horace King (1807–1885), American architect, engineer, and bridge builder, was born into slavery on aSouth Carolina plantation.
Icelus Marcianus, a slave and later freedman of Roman emperorGalba in the 1st century CE. He was one of three men said to completely control the emperor, increasing Galba's unpopularity.[78][79]
Imma, aNorthumbrian aristocrat who was knocked unconscious in battle and later pretended to have been a peasant, so that his captors would not kill him. His manners and bearing soon betrayed him, and he was sold into slavery.[80][81]
Jackey Wright, an enslaved American woman who sued for and won her freedom in the famous 1806 Virginia case ofHudgins v. Wright. The opinion of the Virginia Supreme Court relied on Wright appearing white and Native American, whereas the lower court underGeorge Wythe had tried to establish a presumption of freedom for all people, regardless of race.
Jaja of Opobo (1821–1891), sold at about the age of 12 into slavery in theKingdom of Bonny in present-dayNigeria. Proving at an early age his aptitude for business, he not only earned his way out of slavery but also became a rich and powerful merchant prince and the founder of theOpobo city-state, his career eventually ended by the British colonizers whom he tried to defy.
James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843), a diplomat and sailor notable for his narrative of eleven years ofenslavement inAlgiers and for his diplomatic accomplishments while in slavery.
James Somersett orSomerset, a man enslaved in colonial America whose escape while in England in 1771, supported by notableBritish abolitionists, led to the milestone legal caseSomerset v Stewart, which effectively ended slavery in Britain, though not in its colonies.
Jim Cuff orJim Crow was a physically disabled enslaved African man, variously claimed to have resided inSt. Louis,Cincinnati, orPittsburgh,[89][90] whose song and dance supposedly inspired theblackface song and dance "Jump Jim Crow" by white comedianThomas D. Rice. The great popularity of Rice's creation soon led toJim Crow becoming a pejorative name for blacks, and later to the name being used for the segregationistJim Crow Laws, a mockery of the namesake.
Jim Henson, an African man who escaped slavery and published hismemoirs,Broken Shackles, inCanada.
Joe, a man enslaved byWilliam B. Travis, one of the Texian commanders in theBattle of Alamo. After the Texian defeat, Mexican General Santa Anna spared Joe, hoping to convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texian rebellion.[91] Afterwards, Joe together with some other survivors were sent to Gonzales and encouraged to relate the events of the battle, and to inform the remainder of the Texian forces that Santa Anna's army was unbeatable.
John Axouch (1087–1150), aSeljuk Turk captured as a child by theByzantine Empire, freed and raised in the imperial household as the companion of future emperorJohn II Komnenos, and on his accession given command of the empire's armies and remaining the emperor's only close personal friend and confidant.
John "Lit" Fleming, born into slavery in Virginia but later moved toEdmundson, Arkansas, with his parents and siblings. He would then move to Memphis, Tennessee, and was part-owner of the newspaperMemphis Free Speech with activistIda B. Wells-Barnett.
John Munroe Brazealle, along with his mother, the subjects ofHinds v. Brazealle (1838), a case in theSupreme Court of Mississippi which denied the legality and inheritance rights inMississippi of deeds ofmanumission executed by Elisha Brazealle, a Mississippi resident, in Ohio to free the pair.
John Jea (born 1773), enslaved African-American man best known for his 1811 autobiography,The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, the African Preacher.
John Joyce, born into slavery in Maryland, served in theUnited States Navy, held a variety of jobs after, and murdered a shopkeeper, Sarah Cross; his life and crime recounted in the murder literature of his day.[92]
John S. Jacobs (1815–1873), born into slavery inNorth Carolina, escaped, became an abolitionist speaker and author of a slave memoir. Brother of famed authorHarriet Jacobs.
John Smith (1580–1631), English soldier, sailor, and author best known for his role in the survival of theJamestown colony in Virginia. Smith was captured by theCrimean Tatars in 1602 while fighting inWallachia and enslaved by the Ottoman Empire, but escaped and returned to England by 1604. As Smith described it: "we all sold for slaves, like beasts in a market-place."[98]
Jordan Anderson (1825–1907), best known for a letter sent to his former oppressor/master in response to the latter's request that Jordan return to his service.
John White, an enslaved black boy who was captured by Creeks in 1797 and escaped back to New Orleans, where he was returned to slavery by Spanish officials.[99]
John Ystumllyn, also known asJac Du orJack Black, an 18th-century Welsh gardener and the first well-recorded Black person ofNorth Wales.[100][101]
Joseph Cinqué (1814–1879), also known asSengbe Pieh, leader of a slave rebellion on the slave shipLa Amistad and defendant in the subsequent Supreme Court caseUnited States v. Amistad in 1839.
Joseph Knight, successfully sought his freedom through a legal suit inScotland in 1777, a case which established that Scots law would not uphold the institution of slavery.
Juan Gros, a free black soldier captured nearPensacola by anUpper Creek, who sold him to a white trader who sold him to Mitasuki chiefKinache, from whom Spaniards ransomed him.[106]
Juan Latino, called "el negro Juan Latino", from Ethiopia, brought to Spain as a child, received an education and rose to be professor of Latin at theUniversity of Granada, in 16th-century Spain.
Juan Ortiz, a young Andalusian nobleman enslaved by Chief Ucita in Florida to avenge injuries he suffered at the hands of the expedition Ortiz belonged to.[107]
Juliana, aGuaraní woman from present-dayParaguay, famous for killing her Spanish enslaver between 1538 and 1542 and urging other indigenous women to do the same.[110][111]
Kösem Sultan (1589–1651), an Ottoman enslaved woman, later extremely powerful as wife, then mother and later grandmother of the Ottoman sultan during theSultanate of Women.
Leo Africanus (1494–1554), aMoor born inGranada who was taken by his family in 1498 to Morocco when expelled from Spain. As an adult he served on diplomatic missions. Captured byCrusaders while in the Middle East, he was enslaved in Rome and forced to convert to Christianity. He eventually regained his freedom and lived out his life inTunis.
Leofgifu the dairy maid, an enslaved woman in Anglo-Saxon England, named in her manumission.[117]
Leoflaed, an enslaved woman in Anglo-Saxon England, whose freedom was bought by a man who described her as a "kinswoman."[118]
Leonor de Mendoza, an enslaved woman incolonial Mexico who tried to marry Tomás Ortega, a man enslaved by another master; when her master imprisoned Tomás she appealed to a church court for assistance, which threatened excommunication if he did not free Tomás.[119]
Lilliam Williams, aTennessee settler who was captured by the Creek while pregnant. The Creek adopted her daughter (whom she named Molly and they namedEsnahatchee,); they kept the girl when Williams' freedom was arranged.[121]
Liol, a Chinese man enslaved by Mongol bannerman Soosar. He was rewarded with semi-independent status, as a separate register dependent. In 1735, his son Fuji tried to claim that he and his brother were in fact Manchus and detached household bannermen, but failed.[122]
Louis Hughes (1832–1913), African-American man who escaped slavery, author, and businessman[125]
Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733), Swedish writer who published an account of being enslaved in Russia after being taken prisoner during theGreat Northern War.
Lucius Aurelius Hermia, a freedman butcher whose tombstone glorifies his marriage with his fellow freedwoman Aurelia Philematium.[127]
Lucius Cancrius Primigenius, a freedman of Clemens in an inscription praising him for breaking spells against the city.[128]
Lucius of Campione, who lost a lawsuit in the 8th century over a man Toto's claimed ownership of him.[129]
Lucy, the black woman enslaved by John Lang. She was taken captive by theCreek when 12 years old and kept in slavery in Creek territory, where she had slave children and grandchildren.[130]
Luís Gama (1830–1882), born free in Brazil, illegally sold into slavery as a child, he regained liberty as an adult and became a lawyer who freed hundreds from slavery without asking for recompense, notably in theNetto Case.
Lunsford Lane (1803–after 1870), an enslaved African-American man and entrepreneur from North Carolina who bought freedom for himself and his family. He also wrote aslave narrative.
Lyde, an enslaved woman freed by Roman empress Livia.[131]
Lydia Carter, the "Little Osage Captive," captured and enslaved among the Cherokee. She was ransomed by Lydia Carter, who made her her namesake. The Osage attempted to reclaim her, but she took ill and died.[132]
Malik Ambar, born in 1548 asChapu, a birth-name in Harar,Adal Sultanate in modern-dayEthiopia. He was from the now extinctMaya ethnic group. As a child he was sold in slavery by his parents[135] Mir Qasim Al Baghdadi, one of his slave owners, eventually converted Chapu to Islam and gave him the name Ambar, after recognizing his superior intellectual qualities.[136][137] Malik was brought to India as a slave. While in India he created a mercenary force numbering up to 1500 men. It was based in the Deccan region and was hired by local kings. Malik became a popular Prime Minister of theAhmadnagar Sultanate, showing administrative acumen. He is also regarded as a pioneer inguerilla warfare in the region. He is credited with carrying out arevenue settlement of much of the Deccan, which formed the basis for subsequent settlements. He is a figure of veneration to theSiddis ofGujarat. He humbled the might of theMughals andAdil Shah of Bijapur and raised the low status of the Nizam Shah.[138][139]
Mammy Lou (1804–after 1918), a formerly-enslaved woman who lived to extreme old age and acted in the 1918silent filmThe Glorious Adventure.
Manes, a man enslaved byDiogenes of Sinope. He ran away shortly after his owner arrived in Athens, and Diogenes failed to pursue him on the grounds that if Manes could live without him, it would be disgraceful if he could not equally live without Manes.
Manjeok, enslaved Korean person and leader of an abortive slave uprising.
Mann, either of two men enslaved by Æthelgifu in Anglo-Saxon England and freed by the terms of her will. One was a goldsmith and the other's wife was freed at the same time.[140]
Marcos Xiorro, a man enslaved inPuerto Rico who, in 1821, planned a revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish colonial government. Though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, he became a part of island's folklore.[141]
Marcius Agrippa (late 2nd and early 3rd century), an enslaved man who was not only freed but eventually elevated to senatorial rank by Roman emperorMacrinus.
Margaret Garner (1835–1858), an enslaved woman in antebellum America infamous for killing her own daughter rather than see the child returned to slavery.
Margaret Himfi (before 1380–after 1408), aHungarian noblewoman who was abducted and enslaved by Ottoman marauders in the late 14th century. She later became an enslaved mistress of a wealthy Venetian citizen ofCrete, with whom she had two daughters. Margaret returned to Hungary in 1405.
Maria al-Qibtiyya (died 637), also known as "Maria the Copt" or, alternatively,Maria Qupthiya, an enslavedCopt who was sent as a gift fromMuqawqis, aByzantine official, to theIslamic prophetMuhammad in 628, and became Muhammad's concubine.[142] She was the mother of Muhammad's sonIbrahim, who died in infancy. Her sister,Sirin, was also sent to Muhammad. Muhammad gave her to his followerHassan ibn Thabit. Maria died five years after Muhammad's death in 632.
Maria (died 1716), the leader of a slave rebellion onCuraçao.
Maria Perkins, an enslaved woman from Virginia who wrote a letter to her husband in 1852 about their son being sold away.[143]
Maria ter Meetelen (1704–after 1751), Dutch writer of a slave narrative, enslaved by pirates and sold to the Sultan of Morocco. Her 1748 biography is considered to be a valuable witness statement of the life of a former slave.
Mariah Bell Winder McGavock Otey Reddick (died 1922), as a girl she was given as a wedding gift toCarrie Winder when she married John McGavock in 1848 inTerrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Mariah, born enslaved in Mississippi, was taken toFranklin, Tennessee, where she lived for most of the remainder of her life. She was matched with Harvey Otey after his first wife Phebe died. They had several children, including two sets of twins, born into slavery. During the Civil War, she was sent to Montgomery to be far from Union lines and possible freedom. She has been featured in three novels:Widow of the South andOrphan Mother both by Robert Hicks and in a book by her great-grandson William 'Damani' Keene and his wife Carole 'Ife' Keene entitledClandestine: The Times and Secret Life of Mariah Otey Reddick.[144]
Marianna Malińska (diedafter 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, donated to the king of Poland by will and testament.[9]
Mark, Massachusetts man enslaved by Captain John Codman.[145] Mark's body was displayed in chains publicly nearCharlestown, Massachusetts for twenty years. The gruesome display of his body was so well known at the time, the site where Mark's body was displayed is mentioned byPaul Revere as a landmark, in his 1798 account of Revere's 1775 midnight ride.[146]
Martha Ann Erskine Ricks (1817–1901), an African-American born enslaved in Tennessee, later an Americo-Liberian quilter[147]
Marthe Franceschini (1755–1799), an Italian captured and enslaved by Corsairs and included in the harem of the Sultan of Morocco.
Mary Calhoun, white woman and cousin ofJohn C. Calhoun who was kidnapped by Cherokee. She never returned home.[1]
Mary Edmonson (1832–1853), along with her sister Emily, joined an unsuccessful 1848 escape attempt known as thePearl incident, butHenry Ward Beecher and his church raised the funds to free them.
Mary Mildred Williams, Nee Botts (born 1847), the original 'Poster Child' whose image was used to advance the abolitionist cause by propagandising 'White Slavery' in 1855.
TheMaster of Morton and theeldest son of the Chief ofClan Oliphant, two Scottish nobles who were exiled fromScotland after being implicated in the 1582Raid of Ruthven. The ship in which they sailed was lost at sea, and it was rumoured that they had been caught by a Dutch ship. The last report was that they were enslaved on a Turkish ship in the Mediterranean. A plaque to their memory was raised in the church in Algiers.
Mende Nazer (bornc. 1982), aNuba woman captured inDarfur and transported fromSudan to London, where she eventually won refugee status and wrote the memoirSlave: My True Story (2002).
Miguel Perez was the Spanish name of a boy of theYojuane people who was among 149 Yojuane women and children taken captive in 1759 duringan attack on their camp by an expedition of Spaniards andApaches along theRed River in what is now northernTexas.[150] Many of the captives died ofsmallpox while those who survived were enslaved.[151] The boy was sold to a Spanish soldier who bestowed the Spanish name on him. Perez became an Hispanicized Indian ofSan Antonio but he continued to maintain contact with the Yojuanes. In 1786, Perez was recruited to convince the Yojuanes and theirTonkawa allies to go to war with theLipan Apache, which he did successfully.[150]
Mikhail Matinsky (1750–1820), Russian serf scientist, dramatist, librettist and opera composer.
Michał Rymiński (diedafter 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, donated to the king of Poland by will and testament.[9]
Mingo, the 15–16 years old boy enslaved by the Titsworth family in Tennessee, who was captured in 1794 by Creeks in a raid on the house and kept as a slave by them.[152][153]
Muhammad el-Attaz (1631–1667), Moroccan prince who was enslaved in Malta from 1651 to 1656. He later converted to Christianity, adopted the nameBaldassare Diego Loyola and became a Jesuit priest.[155]
Mustapha Khaznadar (1817–1878), bornGeorgios Halkias Stravelakis, a Christian Greek on the island of Chios, captured by Ottoman troops during the 1822Massacre of Chios, converted to Islam and given the name Mustapha, sold in Constantinople to an envoy of theHusainid Dynasty. He was raised by the family ofMustapha Bey, then by his sonAhmad I Bey[160] while he was still crown prince. Initially, he worked as the prince's privatetreasurer before becoming Ahmad's state treasurer (khaznadar).[160] He managed to climb to the highest offices of the Tunisian state, married Princess Lalla Kalthoum in 1839 and was promoted to lieutenant-general of the army, madebey in 1840 and thenpresident of the Grand Council from 1862 to 1878.
Muyahid ibn Yusuf ibn Ali (11th century), leader of theSaqaliba (slaves of supposed Slavic origin) inDénia, Spain (then part of MuslimAl Andalus). Taking advantage of the crumbling of theCaliphate of Córdoba, he and his followers rebelled, freed themselves, seized control of the city and established theTaifa of Dénia, a city-state which at its peak extended its reach as far as the island ofMajorca.
Nancy, otherwise calledAnn, the plaintiff in the 1799New Brunswickhabeas corpus suitR v Jones
nancy brown Nancy Caffrey, a white captive enslaved by aCreek. When trader John O'Reilly attempted to ransom her and Elsey Thompson, he was told they were not taken captive to be allowed to go back, but to work.[161]
Nathan McMillian, who as a freedman sued for the admission of his children to a local "Croatan Indian" school on the grounds that it was for all non-white children, and that his children had Croatan blood on their mother's side.[162]
Nathaniel Booth (1826–1901), escaped slavery inVirginia and settled in Lowell,Massachusetts. In 1851, the citizens of Lowell purchased his freedom from slave hunters.
Neaera, a formerly-enslaved woman and prostitute whom the Athenian Stephanus married against the law c. 340 BC, according to a speech ofDemosthenes.[163]
Nicarete, a woman in ancient Greece, described inAgainst Neaera the freedwoman of Charisius the Elean and the wife of his cook Hippias, and as owning and prostituting several women c. 340 BC.
Omar ibn Said (1770–1864), a writer and Islamic scholar fromSenegal who was enslaved and transported to the United States in 1807, where he spent the rest of his life enslaved.
Oney Judge (1773–1848), enslaved by the family ofMartha Washington, and then by theFirst Lady herself, Judge worked atMount Vernon and elsewhere as a personal servant to Martha Washington until she escaped in 1796 to Portsmouth New Hampshire.
Osman (1642–1676), alleged son of Ottoman sultanIbrahim andZafire Hatun.[164] At a young age, he was captured ina naval battle in 1644 and was briefly a slave of theKnights Hospitaller on Malta until his possible identity was revealed and he was released byGiovanni Paolo Lascaris. Later in life, he converted to Christianity, adopted the nameDomenico di San Tommaso and became a Dominican friar.[155][165]
Pasion, an enslaved Athenian man and banker.[60] Late in life, he received the rare honor for a freedman of citizenship.[168]
Pata Seca (real nameRoque José Florêncio), born in Angola in 1828, captured and brought to Brazil as a slave, was a very tall, muscular and strong man: 2m18 tall and over 140 kgs weight. He was forced to work as a breeding slave, fathering over 200 children. When slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, he received a plot of land, where he lived out his life with his wife and 9 children.
Saint Patrick, abducted fromBritain, enslaved in Ireland, escaped to Britain, returned to Ireland as a missionary.[169]
Paul Jennings (1799–1874), personal servant enslaved by PresidentJames Madison during and after his White House years, bought his freedom in 1845 fromDaniel Webster. Noted for publishing the firstWhite House memoir, 1865'sA Colored Man's Reminiscences of James Madison.[170]
Paul Smith, a free black who accused the Cherokee headman Doublehead of kidnapping him and forcing him into bondage.[171]
Pete and Hannah Byrne, freed slaves of the Napoleon Bonaparte Byrne family which traveled from Missouri to California overland (a six-month journey) in 1859, leaving the farm in Missouri and bringing six adults (including Pete & Hannah), the four Byrne children and a herd of cattle and settling inBerkeley, California. Pete and Hannah are considered the first blacks living in Berkeley and among the first African-Americans in California.[175][176]
Petronia Justa, a woman inHerculaneum who sued her owner claiming to have been born after her mother's emancipation; the records of the lawsuit were preserved by the eruption of Vesuvius.[177]
Phaedo of Elis, captured in war, enslaved inAthens and forced into prostitution,[178] became a pupil ofSocrates who had him freed, gave his name to one of Plato's dialogues,Phaedo and became a famous philosopher in his own right.
Phillis (died 1755), a Massachusetts woman enslaved by Captain John Codman. Convicted in the successful plot to poison her owner as she and her fellow enslaved "found the rigid discipline of their master unendurable",[145] Phillis was burned to death in 1755.
Phoebe, an enslaved woman who sued for her freedom in Tennessee, along with her sons Davy and Tom, claiming to be the descendants of an enslaved Indian woman whose sister and other relatives had proven that they were wrongly enslaved.[179]
Philocrates, enslaved by 2nd-century BCE Roman reformerGaius Gracchus. He remained at his master's side when Gracchus was fleeing from his enemies, forsaken by everybody else. Arriving at a grove sacred to theFuries, Philocrates first assisted Gracchus in his suicide before taking his own life, though some rumors held that Philocrates was only killed after he refused to let go of his master's body.
Phormion, an enslaved Athenian man and banker.[60] Late in life, he received the rare honor for a freedman of citizenship.[168]
Pierre d'Espagnac, sometimes Pierre d'Espagnal (1650–1689) was a FrenchJesuit missionary, enslaved by the Siamese.
Pope Pius I (diedc. 154), theBishop of Rome from about 140 to about 154, during the reign of Roman emperorAntoninus Pius. He was the brother of the freedmanHermas and therefore likely to have been a former slave himself, though that is not mentioned explicitly in the scant records of his life.
Polly Strong, the subject of the 1820 Indiana Supreme Court casePolly v. Lasselle, which resulted in all slaves held within Indiana to be freed.
Politoria, the subject of a lead curse tablet in ancient Rome; it was a curse on Clodia Valeria Sophrone, that she should not get Politoria into her power. She appears to have been a slave-courtesan who feared being sent to the brothel.[180]
Prince was the slave of aChoctaw man named Richard Harkins. Angered that his owner failed to give his slaves a Christmas celebration, Prince brutally murdered him and then unceremoniously dumped the body into the river in 1858.[181][182]
Prince Boston (born 1750), sued for and won his freedom in a 1773 U.S. jury trial
Prosper, an enslaved man murdered in 1807 inVirgin Islands by his ownerArthur William Hodge, for which Hodge was tried and executed in 1811, the first (and virtually only) such case ever recorded.
A pregnantThrall whose name is not preserved, who was fleeing for her life in 11th-century Oslo, was given refuge on the boat ofHallvard Vebjørnsson, who tried to shield her but was killed together with her by the attackers' arrows, for which he was canonised and became thepatron saint ofOslo.[183]
Quock Walker, also known asKwaku orQuok Walker, sued for and won his freedom in 1781 in a case citing language in the newMassachusetts Constitution (1780) that declared all men to be born free and equal.
Rachel of Kittery, Maine (died 1695), enslaved woman murdered by her owner whose case set a legal precedent in New England.
Rachel Knight (died 1889), initially enslaved by the grandfather ofNewton Knight, the well-known Southern Unionist who during theAmerican Civil War defied the Confederacy in the rebellion known as theFree State of Jones. After the war, Rachel was emancipated along with the other slaves. By the mid-1870s, Knight had separated from his wife, Serena, and married Rachel. In this period, Knight's grown son, Mat (from his first wife), married Rachel's grown daughter, Fannie, from a previous union. Knight's daughter, Molly, married Rachel's son, Jeff, making three interracial families in the community. Newton and Rachel Knight had several children before her death in 1889.
Rebecca Huger, an enslaved woman who was freed by GeneralBenjamin F. Butler inNew Orleans, and described in aHarper's Weekly article as being to all appearance white, and having come to a school for emancipated slaves in Philadelphia.[185]
Robert Blake, earned the Medal of Honor as a sailor during the American Civil War, after becoming a "contraband" (i.e. a slave freed by Unionist forces) and enlisting.
Robert Drury (1687–1743/1750), an English sailor who was shipwrecked on the island ofMadagascar in 1702, and remained enslaved there until 1717.
Robin and Polly Holmes, the plaintiffs in the 1853Holmes v. Ford court case in theOregon Territory that freed their children. The decision re-affirmed that slavery was illegal in the territory as outlined in theOrganic Laws of Oregon that were continued once the region became a U.S. territory.
Rosina Downs, an enslaved woman who was freed by GeneralBenjamin F. Butler inNew Orleans, and described in aHarper's Weekly article as being to all appearance white, and having come to a school for emancipated slaves in Philadelphia.[185]
Safiye Sultan (c. 1550 – c. 1619), an enslaved Albanian woman who was placed in the harem of the Ottoman sultanMurad III and became the mother of sultanMehmed III.
Sally Hemings (1773–1835), a mixed-race woman enslaved byThomas Jefferson believed by many to have had six children with him, four of whom survived to adulthood.
Sambo (died 1736), an enslaved boy who arrived at Sunderland Point, near Lancaster, England, around 1736 from the West Indies in the capacity of a servant a ship's captain. He is buried in an unconsecrated grave in a field near the small village ofSunderland Point,Lancashire, England.
Sambo, a black captive of Tiger King, aLower Creek, who told the travelerWilliam Bartram that Sambo was his family property.[188]
Samson Rowlie (died after 1588), also known asHassan Aga, Chief Eunuch and Treasurer ofAlgiers.
Samuel Benedict (1792–1854), born an African-American slave, later became free and emigrated to Liberia, where he became a politician and judge.[189]
Sarah Forbes Bonetta (1843–1880), anEgbado princess of theYoruba who was orphaned in intertribal warfare, sold into slavery as a child, was rescued by Captain Frederick E. Forbes of theRoyal Navy and taken to the United Kingdom where she became a goddaughter toQueen Victoria.
Sarah Basset (died 1730), enslaved inBermuda; executed for the poisoning of three individuals.
Sarah Johnson (1844–1920) whose life at the first president's plantation was published in the bookSarah Johnson's Mount Vernon.
Satrelanus, from Gaul, sold by Ermedruda to Toto in Milan in 725.[191]
Solitude (1772–1802), known asLa Mulâtresse, a slave on the island ofGuadeloupe freed in 1794 by the abolition of slavery during theFrench Revolution. She was executed after having fought for freedom when slavery was reintroduced byNapoleon in 1802.
Solomon Bayley (1771–1839), wrote a book in 1825 about his life as a slave.
Solomon Northup (1807–c. 1863),[193][194] a farmer, professional violinist, and free-born black man from New York who was lured toWashington, D.C., where slavery was legal, kidnapped, and sold in the South. He remained enslaved in Louisiana from 1841 until he was rescued and liberated in 1853. Author ofTwelve Years a Slave.
Solomon Flores, enslaved man from northernAlabama.
Sosias the Thracian, an enslaved Athenian man, and later freedman, enslaved by Nicias, who later leased him a thousand slaves for his mining operation.[60]
Stefan Holnicki (diedafter 1797), Polish serf and Royal Ballet Dancer, donated to the king of Poland by will and testament.[9]
Stephen Bishop (c. 1821–1857), an enslaved mixed-race man in Kentucky known for being one of the first explorers and guides ofMammoth Cave.
Sue, a black woman enslaved by James Brown, who was captured along with several members of the Brown family and other slaves byChickamaugas. When the warrior who had captured her threatened another captive, the other captor threatened to kill Sue in retribution.[196] James' son Joseph later kidnapped Sue and her children and grandchildren—eight in all—in retribution for his captivity.[197]
Sumayyah bint Khayyat (550–615), a woman enslaved inMecca and one of the first seven converts toIslam made by the ProphetMuhammad in his early career. She was tortured and killed by enemies of the new faith, becoming the first MuslimShahid.
Squanto (1585–1622), also known asTisquantum, a Native American of what is now coastal Massachusetts who was captured by English pirates and sold as a slave. He was later freed and returned toNew England, where he met thePilgrims of theMayflower in 1621.
Subh of Cordoba (940–999), an enslaved concubine of a Caliph and mother and regent of the next Caliph of Cordoba in the 10th century.
T. Aelius Dionysius, a freedman of the late Roman Empire, who created a stela for himself, his wife, and Aelius Perseus, his fellow freedman, and their freedman and those who came after them.[199]
T. Claudius Dionysius, a freedman whose freedwoman wife Claudia Prepontis erected a funerary altar to him. Their clasped hands, depicted on it, show the legitimacy of their marriage, possible only once they obtained their freedom.[200]
Tomás Ortega, an enslaved man in colonial Mexico who attempted to marry Leonor de Mendoza, a woman enslaved by another master. When that man imprisoned Tomás, Leonor appealed to a church court for assistance, and it threatened excommunication if he did not free Tomás.[119]
Titus Kent (1733–18??), enslaved by the Samuel Kent family inSuffield, Connecticut. He was owned by Samuel Kent, who lived 1698–1772; Samuel Kent's 1772 probate recorded that Titus was bequeathed Samuel Kent's son, Elihu Kent.American Revolutionary War records indicate that Titus served in different regiments from 1775 to 1783.
Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743–1803), a freedman who led the slave revolt that led to the independence ofHaiti.
Turgut Reis (1485–1565), also known asDragut, a well-known admiral of theOttoman Navy of the 16th century who was captured by theGenoese atCorsica and forced to work as agalley slave for nearly four years. He was finally rescued by his fellow admiralBarbarossa, who laid siege to Genoa and secured Turgut Reis' release for the prodigious ransom of 3,500 gold ducats. Thereupon, Turgut Reis resumed his naval career (which included the enslavement of various other people).
Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (1705–1775), also known asJames Albert, a freedman turned writer whose autobiography is considered the first published by an African in Britain.
Venture Smith (1729–1805), an African captured as a child and transported to theAmerican colonies as a slave. When an adult, he purchased his freedom and that of his family – his wife Meg and their children Hannah, Solomon and Cuff. His history was documented and published by a schoolteacher, to whom he talked in his old age.
TheVestmenn ("West Men" inOld Norse, referring to the Irish) were a group of Irish slaves brought toIceland byHjörleifr Hróðmarsson, one of the early Norse settlers there. He treated them badly, and they killed him and escaped to a group of offshore islands.Ingólfur Arnarson, Hjörleifur'sblood brother, tracked the escaped slaves and killed them all. Though their individual names are unknown, their memory lives on in Icelandic geography, the islands where they sought refuge being known up to the present as "Vestmannaeyjar": "Islands of the West Men" (i.e. of the Irish).
Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), a French priest who is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church. He was taken captive by Turkish pirates, sold into slavery, and freed in 1607.[204]
Vindicius, an ancient Roman slave who discovered Tarquin's plot to regain power.
Vibia Calybeni, afreedwoman of the late Roman Empire who unusually named herself as a madam on her tombstone.[205]
Virginia Boyd, an enslaved American woman whose letter to R.C. Ballard, pleading not to be sold with her children among strangers, has been preserved. Ballard had undertaken to have her sold at the request ofJudge Samuel Boyd, the children's father, to hide her existence from his family.
Violet Ludlow, an American woman sold into slavery several times despite her claims to be a free white woman.[185]
Virginia Demetricia (1842–after 1867), an enslavedAruban known as a heroine of resistance against enslavement.
Vitalis, ancient enslaved Roman. An epigraph describes an enslaved boy, Iucundus, as the son of Gryphus and Vitalis.[206]
William Ellison (1790–1861), an enslaved man ofmixed race who, after gaining his freedom, became a slaveholder himself, producing cotton.
William Gardner (born 1759), a man enslaved byJames Madison who Madison sold into indentured servitude for seven years before becoming emancipated and working as a merchant's agent.
William (1824–1900) andEllen Craft (1826–1891), a married enslaved couple fromMacon, Georgia, whose daring escape to the North in 1848 made them among the most famous fugitives from slavery in the country.
William D. Gibbons (1825–1886), enslaved domestic servant; became African Baptist minister after emancipation.
William Dorsey Swann (1860–1925), born into slavery in Maryland, later became an LGBT activist and the first known person to self-identify as a drag queen.[208]
William Jones was an enslaved man who was acquired byUlysses S. Grant from his father-in-law in 1858. Jones was thirty-five years old at the time.[209][210] Although Grant was not anabolitionist, he was not considered a "slavery man", and could not bring himself to force a slave to do work.[211] In March 1859, Grant freed William by a manumission deed, potentially worth at least $1,000, when Grant needed the money.[212][213] The case of William Jones received much attention from historians, and is used in debates on Grant's attitude to slavery.
Wilson Chinn African American featuring in an 1863 photograph as "branded slave"
Wulfstan, a man enslaved inAnglo-Saxon England, and his two sons and stepdaughter. They were freed by his mistress Æthelgifu's will.[140]
Wu Rui (15th century), enslavedeunuch in what is nowVietnam. He was the youngest of thirteen Chinese men fromWenchang whose ship was blown off course and who were subsequently enslaved by theLê dynasty. As recorded in theMing Shi-lu, his companions were made agricultural laborers whileWu Rui wascastrated and became an attendant at theImperial Citadel of Thang Long. After years of service, he was promoted at the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497 to a military position in northern Vietnam. A soldier told him of an escape route back to China and Wu Rui escaped toLongzhou. The local chief planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese, but Wu was rescued by thePingxiang magistrate and then was sent toBeijing to work as a eunuch in the palace.
Xing was the primary primary spouse ofGaozong, the brother ofQinzong, Chinese Emperor of theSong Dynasty. In 1127, the capital ofKaifeng was captured by theJurchen during theJin–Song Wars, and Xing was among more than 3000 people captured and exiled to Manchuria in what was called theJingkang Incident. Xing was among The Imperial consorts, concubines, palace women and eunuchs who were captured, and distributed among the Jurchen as slaves.[215] Xing's husband Gaozong, who avoided capture, became the new Emperor and declared Xing Empress in absentia, but was unable to get her free. She remained in captivity where she was coveted by her captors, attempted suicide to escape abuse but failed, and she died in captivity in 1139.[216]
Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229), an Arab biographer and geographer known for his encyclopedic writings on the Muslim world. He was sold into slavery in 12th-centurySyria and taken toBaghdad, but was provided with a good education and later freed.
Yasār (7th century), a Christian man who had been captured in a campaign ofKhalid ibn al-Walid, a companion of Muhammad. Yasār was taken toMedina and became the slave of Qays ibn Makhrama ibn al-Muṭṭalib ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy. He accepted Islam, was manumitted and became his mawlā, thus acquiring thenisbat al-Muṭṭalibī. He had three sons – Mūsā, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, and Isḥāq. His grandson,Ibn Ishaq, became an important early Arab historian.
Yasuke, a 16th-century African man who traveled to Japan in the service of Jesuit missionary Alessandro Valignano. Given toOda Nobunaga, Yasuke became a confident of the daimyō and given official status as a trusted retainer.
Zalmoxis, aDacian who was enslaved byPythagoras on the island ofSamos, according toHerodotus. Zalmoxis learned philosophy from his owner and other wise Greeks. Eventually he was liberated, gathered huge wealth and went back to his homeland, where he converted theThracians to his beliefs, was greatly venerated for his wisdom and in later generations became worshiped as a god.[218]
Zayd ibn Haritha (c. 581–629), given to Muhammad's wifeKhadijah, freed, adopted, and became known as Zayd ibn Muhammad.
Ziryab (789–857), also known asAbul-Hasan Alí Ibn Nafí, a Muslim singer, musician, and polymath known for introducing the cropasparagus to Europe.
Zoe (died 127), slave inPamphylia, Roman Anatolia and aChristian martyr. She and her family were killed for refusing to participate in pagan rites when their son was born.[62]
^Fantham, et al.,Women in the Classical World pp. 319–20
^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Fournet, Pierre August (1907). "St. Bathilde". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Kirsch, Johan Peter (1907). "St. Blandina". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^Williams, Emily Allen (2004).The Critical Response to Kamau Brathwaite. Praeger Publishers. p. 235.ISBN0-275-97957-1.
^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chapman, Henry Palmer (1908). "Pope Callistus I". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^Cassar, Kenneth; Grillo, Rachel (2024).Betrayal and Vengeance: The Slaves' Conspiracy of 1749 in 19 Historical Drawings.Heritage Malta. pp. 42–43.ISBN978-99186-19-9-00.
^Mozingo, Joe (2012).The Fiddler on Pantico Run: An African Warrior, His White Descendants, A Search for Family. Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-1-4516-2748-0.
^Alan Fisher (1993). "The Life and Family of Suleyman I". In İnalcık, Halil; Kafadar, Cemal (eds.).Süleymân The Second [i.e. the First] and his time. Isis Press.That she was a Tatar, a daughter of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray, was a story apparently begun byJovius, repeated by other western sources, and taken up by Merriman in his biography of Suleyman
^Laurence Vidal, Los Amantes de Granada, Ed. EDHASA, 2006, 359 pages, (ISBN978-8-43501742-8)
^Afnan, Abul-Qasim (1999),Black Pearls: Servants in the Household of the Bab and Baha'u'llah, Kalimat Press, p. 27,ISBN1-890688-03-7
^Afnan, Abul-Qasim (1999),Black Pearls: Servants in the Household of the Bab and Baha'u'llah, Kalimat Press, p. 30,ISBN1-890688-03-7
^'Abdu'l-Baha (1982).Promulgation of Universal Peace: Talks Delivered by Abdu'l Baha during His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912. Bahai Publishing Trust, 2nd Edition. p. 426.ISBN978-0877431725.
^"alio impubere luxui regali reservato" by account ofLeonard of Chios, the archbishop ofMytilene, an eye-witness and captive of Constantinople.Atti della Società ligure di storia patria, p.256
^Ariela J. Gross,What Blood Won't Tell: A History of Race on Trial in America, pp. 24–5,ISBN978-0-674-03130-2/
^Hutton, Michael (June–December 1889)."The Negro on the Stage".Harper's Magazine. Vol. 79. Harper's Magazine Co. pp. 131–145. RetrievedMarch 10, 2010.
^Mary Deborah Petite, "1836 Facts about the Alamo and the Texas War for Independence",ISBN978-1-882810-35-2, Savas Publishing Company, Mason City, IA, 1999, p. 128
^Wright, Donald R. (1981). "Uprooting Kunta Kinte: On the Perils of Relying on Encyclopedic Informants".History in Africa.8:205–217.doi:10.2307/3171516.JSTOR3171516.S2CID162425305.
^Montanaro, Eugene F. (1997). "Don Lorenzo de Apapis (1501c.–1586) a sixteenth century parish priest and notary". In Farrugia, J.; Briguglio, L. (eds.).A Focus on Gozo(PDF).Gozo: Formatek Ltd. pp. 91–103.ISBN9990949034. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on June 30, 2024.
^"Louis Hughes". American Literature. RetrievedJuly 3, 2020.
^Daniel Odgen,Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts In The Greek and Roman Worlds, p. 166,ISBN978-0-19-538520-5
^Fantham, et al.,Women in the Classical World, pp. 319–20
^Daniel Ogden "Binding Spells" p. 70Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart ClarkISBN0-8122-1705-5
^Slavery & South Asian History. Chatterjee, Indrani., Eaton, Richard Maxwell. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 2006.ISBN978-0-253-11671-0.OCLC191950586.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^Talmage, T. De Witt, ed. (July 1885)."The Rev. Moses A. Hopkins, A.M."Frank Leslie's Sunday Magazine.18 (1). New York: Frank Leslie's Publishing House: 556.
^abAssociation of Muslim Social Scientists; International Institute of Islamic Thought (2008).The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. Vol. 25. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. p. 56.OCLC60626498.
^Christina Snyder,Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America, p. 130,ISBN978-0-674-04890-4
^Ariela J. Gross,What Blood Won't Tell: A History of Race on Trial in America, p. 120,ISBN978-0-674-03130-2
^Elaine Fantham, Helene Peet Foley, Natalie Boymel Kampen, Sarah B. Pomeroy, H. A. Shapiro,Women in the Classical World pp. 114–5,ISBN0-19-509862-5
^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Moran, Patrick Francis (1911). "St. Patrick". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^Pettitt, George A.Berkeley: The Town and Gown of It. P. 34, 37.
^Wollenberg, Charles (2002)."Berkeley, A City in History".berkeleypubliclibrary.org. Archived fromthe original on September 11, 2015. RetrievedNovember 6, 2015.Berkeley's black heritage goes back to the arrival of Pete and Hannah Byrne in 1859, but the African American population remained small for the rest of the nineteenth century.
^Sarah B. Pomeroy,Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves, p. 197,ISBN0-8052-1030-X
^Ariela J. Gross,What Blood Won't Tell: A History of Race on Trial in America, pp. 25–6,ISBN978-0-674-03130-2
^Daniel Ogden "Binding Spells" pp 67–8Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart ClarkISBN0-8122-1705-5
^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Dégert, Antoine (1912). "St. Vincent de Paul". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^Elaine Fantham, Helene Peet Foley, Natalie Boymel Kampen, Sarah B. Pomeroy, H. A. Shapiro,Women in the Classical World p. 380,ISBN0-19-509862-5
^Daniel Odgen, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts In The Greek and Roman Worlds, p. 119,ISBN978-0-19-538520-5
^Sarah B. Pomeroy,Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves, pp. 198–9,ISBN0-8052-1030-X
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Fournet, Pierre August (1907). "St. Bathilde". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
