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List of semiconductor materials

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Semiconductor materials are nominally smallband gap insulators. The defining property of asemiconductor material is that it can be compromised bydoping it with impurities that alter its electronic properties in a controllable way.^[1] Because of their application in thecomputer andphotovoltaic industry—in devices such astransistors,lasers, andsolar cells—the search for new semiconductor materials and the improvement of existing materials is an important field of study inmaterials science.

Most commonly used semiconductor materials arecrystalline inorganic solids. These materials are classified according to theperiodic table groups of their constituentatoms.

Different semiconductor materials differ in their properties. Thus, in comparison withsilicon,compound semiconductors have both advantages and disadvantages. For example,gallium arsenide (GaAs) has six times higherelectron mobility than silicon, which allows faster operation; widerband gap, which allows operation of power devices at higher temperatures, and gives lowerthermal noise to low power devices at room temperature; itsdirect band gap gives it more favorableoptoelectronic properties than theindirect band gap of silicon; it can be alloyed to ternary and quaternary compositions, with adjustable band gap width, allowing light emission at chosen wavelengths, which makes possible matching to the wavelengths most efficiently transmitted through optical fibers. GaAs can be also grown in a semi-insulating form, which is suitable as a lattice-matching insulating substrate for GaAs devices. Conversely, silicon is robust, cheap, and easy to process, whereas GaAs is brittle and expensive, and insulation layers cannot be created by just growing an oxide layer; GaAs is therefore used only where silicon is not sufficient.^[2]

By alloying multiple compounds, some semiconductor materials are tunable, e.g., inband gap orlattice constant. The result is ternary, quaternary, or even quinary compositions. Ternary compositions allow adjusting the band gap within the range of the involved binary compounds; however, in case of combination of direct and indirect band gap materials there is a ratio where indirect band gap prevails, limiting the range usable for optoelectronics; e.g. AlGaAsLEDs are limited to 660 nm by this. Lattice constants of the compounds also tend to be different, and the lattice mismatch against the substrate, dependent on the mixing ratio, causes defects in amounts dependent on the mismatch magnitude; this influences the ratio of achievable radiative/nonradiative recombinations and determines the luminous efficiency of the device. Quaternary and higher compositions allow adjusting simultaneously the band gap and the lattice constant, allowing increasing radiant efficiency at wider range of wavelengths; for example AlGaInP is used for LEDs. Materials transparent to the generated wavelength of light are advantageous, as this allows more efficient extraction of photons from the bulk of the material. That is, in such transparent materials, light production is not limited to just the surface. Index of refraction is also composition-dependent and influences the extraction efficiency of photons from the material.^[3]

Types of semiconductor materials

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Group III elemental semiconductors, (B)
Group IV elemental semiconductors, (C, Si, and Ge)
Group IV compound semiconductors
Group VI elemental semiconductors, (Se and Te)
III–V semiconductors: Crystallizing with high degree of stoichiometry, most can be obtained as bothn-type andp-type. Many have high carrier mobilities and direct energy gaps, making them useful for optoelectronics.(See also:Template:III-V compounds.)
II–VI semiconductors: usually p-type, except ZnTe and ZnO which are n-type
I–VII semiconductors
IV–VI semiconductors
V–VI semiconductors
II–V semiconductors
I–III–VI₂ semiconductors
Oxides
Layered semiconductors
Magnetic semiconductors
Organic semiconductors
Charge-transfer complexes
Some ofMOFs.
Others

Compound semiconductors

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Acompound semiconductor is a semiconductorcompound composed ofchemical elements of at least two different species. These semiconductors form for example inperiodic table groups 13–15 (old groups III–V), for example of elements from theBoron group (old group III,boron,aluminium,gallium,indium) and fromgroup 15 (old group V,nitrogen,phosphorus,arsenic,antimony,bismuth). The range of possible formulae is quite broad because these elements can form binary (two elements, e.g.gallium(III) arsenide (GaAs)), ternary (three elements, e.g.indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)) and quaternary alloys (four elements) such asaluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlInGaP)) alloy andIndium arsenide antimonide phosphide (InAsSbP). The properties of III-V compound semiconductors are similar to their group IV counterparts. The higher ionicity in these compounds, and especially in the II-VI compound, tends to increase the fundamental bandgap with respect to the less ionic compounds.^[4]

Fabrication

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Metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy (MOVPE) is the most popular deposition technology for the formation of compound semiconducting thin films for devices.^{[citation needed]} It uses ultrapuremetalorganics and/orhydrides asprecursor source materials in an ambient gas such ashydrogen.

Other techniques of choice include:

Molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE)
Hydride vapor-phase epitaxy (HVPE)
Liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)
Metal-organic molecular-beam epitaxy (MOMBE)
Atomic layer deposition (ALD)

Table of semiconductor materials

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Group	Elem.	Material	Formula	Band gap (eV)	Gap type	Description
IV	1	Silicon	Si	1.12^[5]^[6]	indirect	Used in conventionalcrystalline silicon (c-Si)solar cells, and in its amorphous form asamorphous silicon (a-Si) inthin-film solar cells. Most common semiconductor material inphotovoltaics; dominates worldwide PV market; easy to fabricate; good electrical and mechanical properties. Forms high qualitythermal oxide for insulation purposes. Most common material used in the fabrication ofintegrated circuits.
IV	1	Germanium	Ge	0.67^[5]^[6]	indirect	Used in early radar detection diodes and first transistors, with lesser purity required than silicon. A substrate for high-efficiencymultijunction photovoltaic cells. Very similar lattice constant togallium arsenide. High-purity crystals used forgamma spectroscopy. May growwhiskers, which impair reliability of some devices.
IV	1	Diamond	C	5.47^[5]^[6]	indirect	Excellent thermal conductivity. Superior mechanical and optical properties. High carrier mobilities^[7] and high electric breakdown field^[8] at room temperature as excellent electronics characteristics.Extremely highnanomechanical resonator quality factor.^[9]
IV	1	Gray tin,α-Sn	Sn	0^[10]^[11]	semimetal	Low temperature allotrope (diamond cubic lattice).
IV	2	Silicon carbide,3C-SiC	SiC	2.3^[5]	indirect	Used for early yellow LEDs
IV	2	Silicon carbide,4H-SiC	SiC	3.3^[5]	indirect	Used for high-voltage and high-temperature applications
IV	2	Silicon carbide,6H-SiC	SiC	3.0^[5]	indirect	Used for early blue LEDs
VI	1	Sulfur,α-S	S₈	2.6^[12]
VI	1	Gray (trigonal) selenium	Se	1.83–2.0^[13]^[14]	indirect	Used inselenium rectifiers andsolar cells.^[15] Band gap depends on fabrication conditions.
VI	1	Red selenium	Se	2.05	indirect	^[16]
VI	1	Tellurium	Te	0.33^[17]
III-V	2	Boron nitride, cubic	BN	6.36^[18]	indirect	Potentially useful for ultraviolet LEDs
III-V	2	Boron nitride, hexagonal	BN	5.96^[18]	quasi-direct	Potentially useful for ultraviolet LEDs
III-V	2	Boron nitride nanotube	BN	5.5^[19]
III-V	2	Boron phosphide	BP	2.1^[20]	indirect
III-V	2	Boron arsenide	BAs	1.82	direct	Ultrahigh thermal conductivity for thermal management; Resistant toradiation damage, possible applications inbetavoltaics.
III-V	2	Boron arsenide	B₁₂As₂	3.47	indirect	Resistant toradiation damage, possible applications inbetavoltaics.
III-V	2	Aluminium nitride	AlN	6.28^[5]	direct	Piezoelectric. Not used on its own as a semiconductor; AlN-close GaAlN possibly usable for ultraviolet LEDs. Inefficient emission at 210 nm was achieved on AlN.
III-V	2	Aluminium phosphide	AlP	2.45^[6]	indirect
III-V	2	Aluminium arsenide	AlAs	2.16^[6]	indirect
III-V	2	Aluminium antimonide	AlSb	1.6/2.2^[6]	indirect/direct
III-V	2	Gallium nitride	GaN	3.44^[5]^[6]	direct	Problematic to be doped to p-type, p-doping with Mg and annealing allowed first high-efficiency blue LEDs^[3] andblue lasers. Very sensitive to ESD. Insensitive to ionizing radiation. GaN transistors can operate at higher voltages and higher temperatures than GaAs, used in microwave power amplifiers. When doped with e.g. manganese, becomes amagnetic semiconductor.
III-V	2	Gallium phosphide	GaP	2.26^[5]^[6]	indirect	Used in early low to medium brightness cheap red/orange/green LEDs. Used standalone or with GaAsP. Transparent for yellow and red light, used as substrate for GaAsP red/yellow LEDs. Doped with S or Te for n-type, with Zn for p-type. Pure GaP emits green, nitrogen-doped GaP emits yellow-green, ZnO-doped GaP emits red.
III-V	2	Gallium arsenide	GaAs	1.42^[5]^[6]	direct	Second most common in use after silicon, commonly used as substrate for other III-V semiconductors, e.g. InGaAs and GaInNAs. Brittle. Lower hole mobility than Si, P-type CMOS transistors unfeasible. High impurity density, difficult to fabricate small structures. Used for near-IR LEDs, fast electronics, and high-efficiencysolar cells. Very similar lattice constant togermanium, can be grown on germanium substrates.
III-V	2	Gallium antimonide	GaSb	0.73^[5]^[6]	direct	Used for infrared detectors and LEDs andthermophotovoltaics. Doped n with Te, p with Zn.
III-V	2	Indium nitride	InN	0.7^[5]	direct	Possible use in solar cells, but p-type doping difficult. Used frequently as alloys.
III-V	2	Indium phosphide	InP	1.35^[5]	direct	Commonly used as substrate for epitaxial InGaAs. Superior electron velocity, used in high-power and high-frequency applications. Used in optoelectronics.
III-V	2	Indium arsenide	InAs	0.36^[5]	direct	Used for infrared detectors for 1–3.8 μm, cooled or uncooled. High electron mobility. InAs dots in InGaAs matrix can serve as quantum dots. Quantum dots may be formed from a monolayer of InAs on InP or GaAs. Strongphoto-Dember emitter, used as aterahertz radiation source.
III-V	2	Indium antimonide	InSb	0.17^[5]	direct	Used in infrared detectors and thermal imaging sensors, high quantum efficiency, low stability, require cooling, used in military long-range thermal imager systems. AlInSb-InSb-AlInSb structure used asquantum well. Very highelectron mobility,electron velocity andballistic length. Transistors can operate below 0.5V and above 200 GHz. Terahertz frequencies maybe achievable.
II-VI	2	Cadmium selenide	CdSe	1.74^[6]	direct	Nanoparticles used asquantum dots. Intrinsic n-type, difficult to dope p-type, but can be p-type doped with nitrogen. Possible use in optoelectronics. Tested for high-efficiency solar cells.
II-VI	2	Cadmium sulfide	CdS	2.42^[6]	direct	Used inphotoresistors and solar cells; CdS/Cu₂S was the first efficient solar cell. Used in solar cells with CdTe. Common asquantum dots. Crystals can act as solid-state lasers. Electroluminescent. When doped, can act as aphosphor.
II-VI	2	Cadmium telluride	CdTe	1.49^[6]	direct	Used in solar cells with CdS. Used inthin film solar cells and othercadmium telluride photovoltaics; less efficient thancrystalline silicon but cheaper. Highelectro-optic effect, used inelectro-optic modulators. Fluorescent at 790 nm. Nanoparticles usable as quantum dots.
II-VI, oxide	2	Zinc oxide	ZnO	3.37^[6]	direct	Photocatalytic. Band gap is tunable from 3 to 4 eV by alloying withmagnesium oxide andcadmium oxide. Intrinsic n-type, p-type doping is difficult. Heavy aluminium, indium, or gallium doping yields transparent conductive coatings; ZnO:Al is used as window coatings transparent in visible and reflective in infrared region and as conductive films in LCD displays and solar panels as a replacement ofindium tin oxide. Resistant to radiation damage. Possible use in LEDs and laser diodes. Possible use inrandom lasers.
II-VI	2	Zinc selenide	ZnSe	2.7^[6]	direct	Used for blue lasers and LEDs. Easy to n-type doping, p-type doping is difficult but can be done with e.g. nitrogen. Common optical material in infrared optics.
II-VI	2	Zinc sulfide	ZnS	3.54/3.91^[6]	direct	Band gap 3.54 eV (cubic), 3.91 (hexagonal). Can be doped both n-type and p-type. Common scintillator/phosphor when suitably doped.
II-VI	2	Zinc telluride	ZnTe	2.3^[6]	direct	Can be grown on AlSb, GaSb, InAs, and PbSe. Used in solar cells, components of microwave generators, blue LEDs and lasers. Used in electrooptics. Together withlithium niobate used to generateterahertz radiation.
I-VII	2	Cuprous chloride	CuCl	3.4^[21]	direct
I-VI	2	Copper(I) sulfide	Cu₂S	1.2^[20]	indirect	p-type, Cu₂S/CdS was the first efficient thin film solar cell
IV-VI	2	Lead selenide	PbSe	0.26^[17]	direct	Used in infrared detectors for thermal imaging. Nanocrystals usable as quantum dots.Good high temperature thermoelectric material.
IV-VI	2	Lead(II) sulfide	PbS	0.37^[22]		Mineralgalena, first semiconductor in practical use, used incat's whisker detectors; the detectors are slow due to high dielectric constant of PbS. Oldest material used in infrared detectors. At room temperature can detectSWIR, longer wavelengths require cooling.
IV-VI	2	Lead telluride	PbTe	0.32^[5]		Low thermal conductivity, good thermoelectric material at elevated temperature for thermoelectric generators.
IV-VI	2	Tin(II) sulfide	SnS	1.3/1.0^[23]	direct/indirect	Tin sulfide (SnS) is a semiconductor with direct optical band gap of 1.3 eV and absorption coefficient above 10⁴ cm⁻¹ for photon energies above 1.3 eV. It is a p-type semiconductor whose electrical properties can be tailored by doping and structural modification and has emerged as one of the simple, non-toxic and affordable material for thin film solar cells since a decade.
IV-VI	2	Tin(IV) sulfide	SnS₂	2.2^[24]		SnS₂ is widely used in gas sensing applications.
IV-VI	2	Tin telluride	SnTe	0.18	direct	Complex band structure.
V-VI, layered	2	Bismuth telluride	Bi₂Te₃	0.13^[5]		Efficient thermoelectric material near room temperature when alloyed with selenium or antimony. Narrow-gap layered semiconductor. High electrical conductivity, low thermal conductivity. Topological insulator.
II-V	2	Cadmium phosphide	Cd₃P₂	0.5^[25]
II-V	2	Cadmium arsenide	Cd₃As₂	0		N-type intrinsic semiconductor. Very high electron mobility. Used in infrared detectors, photodetectors, dynamic thin-film pressure sensors, andmagnetoresistors. Recent measurements suggest that 3D Cd₃As₂ is actually a zero band-gap Dirac semimetal in which electrons behave relativistically as ingraphene.^[26]
II-V	2	Zinc phosphide	Zn₃P₂	1.5^[27]	direct	Usually p-type.
II-V	2	Zinc diphosphide	ZnP₂	2.1^[28]
II-V	2	Zinc arsenide	Zn₃As₂	1.0^[29]		The lowest direct and indirect bandgaps are within 30 meV or each other.^[29]
II-V	2	Zinc antimonide	Zn₃Sb₂			Used in infrared detectors and thermal imagers, transistors, and magnetoresistors.
Oxide	2	Titanium dioxide,anatase	TiO₂	3.20^[30]	indirect	Photocatalytic, n-type
Oxide	2	Titanium dioxide,rutile	TiO₂	3.0^[30]	direct	Photocatalytic, n-type
Oxide	2	Titanium dioxide,brookite	TiO₂	3.26^[30]		^[31]
Oxide	2	Copper(I) oxide	Cu₂O	2.17^[32]		One of the most studied semiconductors. Many applications and effects first demonstrated with it. Formerly used in rectifier diodes, before silicon.
Oxide	2	Copper(II) oxide	CuO	1.2		N-type semiconductor.^[33]
Oxide	2	Uranium dioxide	UO₂	1.3		HighSeebeck coefficient, resistant to high temperatures, promising thermoelectric andthermophotovoltaic applications. Formerly used in URDOX resistors, conducting at high temperature. Resistant toradiation damage.
Oxide	2	Tin dioxide	SnO₂	3.7		Oxygen-deficient n-type semiconductor. Used in gas sensors.
Oxide	3	Barium titanate	BaTiO₃	3		Ferroelectric,piezoelectric. Used in some uncooled thermal imagers. Used innonlinear optics.
Oxide	3	Strontium titanate	SrTiO₃	3.3		Ferroelectric,piezoelectric. Used invaristors. Conductive whenniobium-doped.
Oxide	3	Lithium niobate	LiNbO₃	4		Ferroelectric, piezoelectric, showsPockels effect. Wide uses in electrooptics and photonics.
Oxide, V-VI	2	monoclinicVanadium(IV) oxide	VO₂	0.7^[34]	optical	Stable below 67 °C
Layered	2	Lead(II) iodide	PbI₂	2.4^[35]		PbI₂ is a layered direct bandgap semiconductor with bandgap of 2.4 eV in its bulk form, whereas its 2D monolayer has an indirect bandgap of ~2.5 eV, with possibilities to tune the bandgap between 1–3 eV
Layered	2	Molybdenum disulfide	MoS₂	1.23 eV (2H)^[36]	indirect
Layered	2	Gallium selenide	GaSe	2.1	indirect	Photoconductor. Uses in nonlinear optics. Used as 2D-material. Air sensitive.^[37]^[38]^[39]
Layered	2	Indium selenide	InSe	1.26–2.35 eV^[39]	direct (indirect in 2D)	Air sensitive. High electrical mobility in few- and mono-layer form.^[37]^[38]^[39]
Layered	2	Tin sulfide	SnS	>1.5 eV	direct
Layered	2	Bismuth sulfide	Bi₂S₃	1.3^[5]
Magnetic, diluted (DMS)^[40]	3	Gallium manganese arsenide	GaMnAs
Magnetic, diluted (DMS)	3	Lead manganese telluride	PbMnTe
Magnetic	4	Lanthanum calcium manganate	La_0.7Ca_0.3MnO₃			Colossal magnetoresistance
Magnetic	2	Iron(II) oxide	FeO	2.2^[41]		Antiferromagnetic. Band gap for iron oxide nanoparticles was found to be 2.2 eV and on doping the band gap found to be increased up to 2.5 eV
Magnetic	2	Nickel(II) oxide	NiO	3.6–4.0	direct^[42]^[43]	Antiferromagnetic
Magnetic	2	Europium(II) oxide	EuO			Ferromagnetic
Magnetic	2	Europium(II) sulfide	EuS			Ferromagnetic
Magnetic	2	Chromium(III) bromide	CrBr₃
other	3	Copper indium selenide, CIS	CuInSe₂	1	direct
other	3	Silver gallium sulfide	AgGaS₂			Nonlinear optical properties
other	3	Zinc silicon phosphide	ZnSiP₂	2.0^[20]
other	2	Arsenic trisulfide Orpiment	As₂S₃	2.7^[44]	direct	Semiconductive in both crystalline and glassy state
other	2	Arsenic sulfide Realgar	As₄S₄			Semiconductive in both crystalline and glassy state
other	2	Platinum silicide	PtSi			Used in infrared detectors for 1–5 μm. Used in infrared astronomy. High stability, low drift, used for measurements. Low quantum efficiency.
other	2	Bismuth(III) iodide	BiI₃
other	2	Mercury(II) iodide	HgI₂			Used in some gamma-ray and x-ray detectors and imaging systems operating at room temperature.
other	2	Thallium(I) bromide	TlBr	2.68^[45]		Used in some gamma-ray and x-ray detectors and imaging systems operating at room temperature. Used as a real-time x-ray image sensor.
other	2	Silver sulfide	Ag₂S	0.9^[46]
other	2	Iron disulfide	FeS₂	0.95^[47]		Mineralpyrite. Used in latercat's whisker detectors, investigated forsolar cells.
other	4	Copper zinc tin sulfide, CZTS	Cu₂ZnSnS₄	1.49	direct	Cu₂ZnSnS₄ is derived from CIGS, replacing the Indium/Gallium with earth abundant Zinc/Tin.
other	4	Copper zinc antimony sulfide, CZAS	Cu_1.18Zn_0.40Sb_1.90S_7.2	2.2^[48]	direct	Copper zinc antimony sulfide is derived from copper antimony sulfide (CAS), a famatinite class of compound.
other	3	Copper tin sulfide, CTS	Cu₂SnS₃	0.91^[20]	direct	Cu₂SnS₃ is p-type semiconductor and it can be used in thin film solar cell application.

Table of semiconductor alloy systems

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The following semiconducting systems can be tuned to some extent, and represent not a single material but a class of materials.

Group	Elem.	Material class	Formula	Band gap (eV)		Gap type	Description
Group	Elem.	Material class	Formula	Lower	Upper	Gap type	Description
IV-VI	3	Lead tin telluride	Pb_1−xSn_xTe	0	0.29		Used in infrared detectors and for thermal imaging
IV	2	Silicon-germanium	Si_1−xGe_x	0.67	1.11^[5]	direct/indirect	Adjustable band gap, allows construction ofheterojunction structures. Certain thicknesses ofsuperlattices have direct band gap.^[49]
IV	2	Silicon-tin	Si_1−xSn_x	1.0	1.11	indirect	Adjustable band gap.^[50]
III-V	3	Aluminium gallium arsenide	Al_xGa_1−xAs	1.42	2.16^[5]	direct/indirect	Direct band gap for x<0.4 (corresponding to 1.42–1.95 eV); can be lattice-matched to GaAs substrate over entire composition range; tends to oxidize; n-doping with Si, Se, Te; p-doping with Zn, C, Be, Mg.^[3] Can be used for infrared laser diodes. Used as a barrier layer in GaAs devices to confine electrons to GaAs (see e.g.QWIP). AlGaAs with composition close to AlAs is almost transparent to sunlight. Used in GaAs/AlGaAs solar cells.
III-V	3	Indium gallium arsenide	In_xGa_1−xAs	0.36	1.43	direct	Well-developed material. Can be lattice matched to InP substrates. Use in infrared technology andthermophotovoltaics. Indium content determines charge carrier density. Forx=0.015, InGaAs perfectly lattice-matches germanium; can be used in multijunction photovoltaic cells. Used in infrared sensors, avalanche photodiodes, laser diodes, optical fiber communication detectors, and short-wavelength infrared cameras.
III-V	3	Indium gallium phosphide	In_xGa_1−xP	1.35	2.26	direct/indirect	Used forHEMT andHBT structures and high-efficiency multijunctionsolar cells for e.g. satellites. Ga_0.5In_0.5P is almost lattice-matched to GaAs, with AlGaIn used for quantum wells for red lasers.
III-V	3	Aluminium indium arsenide	Al_xIn_1−xAs	0.36	2.16	direct/indirect	Buffer layer in metamorphicHEMT transistors, adjusting lattice constant between GaAs substrate and GaInAs channel. Can form layered heterostructures acting as quantum wells, in e.g.quantum cascade lasers.
III-V	3	Aluminium gallium antimonide	Al_xGa_1−xSb	0.7	1.61	direct/indirect	Used inHBTs,HEMTs,resonant-tunneling diodes and some niche optoelectronics. Also used as a buffer layer forInAs quantum wells.
III-V	3	Aluminium indium antimonide	Al_xIn_1−xSb	0.17	1.61	direct/indirect	Used as a buffer layer in InSb-based quantum wells and other devices grown on GaAs and GaSb substrates. Also used as the active layer in some mid-infrared LEDs and photodiodes.
III-V	3	Gallium arsenide nitride	GaAsN
III-V	3	Gallium arsenide phosphide	GaAsP	1.43	2.26	direct/indirect	Used in red, orange and yellow LEDs. Often grown on GaP. Can be doped with nitrogen.
III-V	3	Aluminium arsenide antimonide	AlAsSb	1.61	2.16	indirect	Used as a barrier layer in infrared photodetectors. Can be lattice matched to GaSb, InAs and InP.
III-V	3	Gallium arsenide antimonide	GaAsSb	0.7	1.42^[5]	direct	Used inHBTs and intunnel junctions inmulti-junction solar cells. GaAs_0.51Sb_0.49 is lattice matched to InP.
III-V	3	Aluminium gallium nitride	AlGaN	3.44	6.28	direct	Used inblue laser diodes, ultraviolet LEDs (down to 250 nm), and AlGaN/GaNHEMTs. Can be grown on sapphire. Used inheterojunctions with AlN and GaN.
III-V	3	Aluminium gallium phosphide	AlGaP	2.26	2.45	indirect	Used in some green LEDs.
III-V	3	Indium gallium nitride	InGaN	2	3.4	direct	In_xGa_1–xN, x usually between 0.02 and 0.3 (0.02 for near-UV, 0.1 for 390 nm, 0.2 for 420 nm, 0.3 for 440 nm). Can be grown epitaxially on sapphire, SiC wafers or silicon. Used in modern blue and green LEDs, InGaN quantum wells are effective emitters from green to ultraviolet. Insensitive to radiation damage, possible use in satellite solar cells. Insensitive to defects, tolerant to lattice mismatch damage. High heat capacity.
III-V	3	Indium arsenide antimonide	InAsSb	0.17	0.36	direct	Primarily used inmid- and long-wave infrared photodetectors due to its small bandgap, which reaches a minimum of around 0.08 eV in InAs_0.4Sb_0.6 at room temperature.
III-V	3	Indium gallium antimonide	InGaSb	0.17	0.7	direct	Used in some transistors and infrared photodetectors.
III-V	4	Aluminium gallium indium phosphide	AlGaInP			direct/indirect	Also InAlGaP, InGaAlP, AlInGaP; for lattice matching to GaAs substrates the In mole fraction is fixed at about 0.48, the Al/Ga ratio is adjusted to achieve band gaps between about 1.9 and 2.35 eV; direct or indirect band gaps depending on the Al/Ga/In ratios; used for wavelengths between 560 and 650 nm; tends to form ordered phases during deposition, which has to be prevented^[3]
III-V	4	Aluminium gallium arsenide phosphide	AlGaAsP
III-V	4	Indium gallium arsenide phosphide	InGaAsP
III-V	4	Indium gallium arsenide antimonide	InGaAsSb				Use inthermophotovoltaics.
III-V	4	Indium arsenide antimonide phosphide	InAsSbP				Use inthermophotovoltaics.
III-V	4	Aluminium indium arsenide phosphide	AlInAsP
III-V	4	Aluminium gallium arsenide nitride	AlGaAsN
III-V	4	Indium gallium arsenide nitride	InGaAsN
III-V	4	Indium aluminium arsenide nitride	InAlAsN
III-V	4	Gallium arsenide antimonide nitride	GaAsSbN
III-V	5	Gallium indium nitride arsenide antimonide	GaInNAsSb
III-V	5	Gallium indium arsenide antimonide phosphide	GaInAsSbP				Can be grown on InAs, GaSb, and other substrates. Can be lattice matched by varying composition. Possibly usable for mid-infrared LEDs.
II-VI	3	Cadmium zinc telluride, CZT	CdZnTe	1.4	2.2	direct	Efficient solid-state x-ray and gamma-ray detector, can operate at room temperature. Highelectro-optic coefficient. Used in solar cells. Can be used to generate and detect terahertz radiation. Can be used as a substrate for epitaxial growth of HgCdTe.
II-VI	3	Mercury cadmium telluride	HgCdTe	0	1.5		Known as "MerCad". Extensive use in sensitive cooledinfrared imaging sensors,infrared astronomy, and infrared detectors. Alloy ofmercury telluride (asemimetal, zero band gap) and CdTe. High electron mobility. The only common material capable of operating in both 3–5 μm and 12–15 μmatmospheric windows. Can be grown on CdZnTe.
II-VI	3	Mercury zinc telluride	HgZnTe	0	2.25		Used in infrared detectors, infrared imaging sensors, and infrared astronomy. Better mechanical and thermal properties than HgCdTe but more difficult to control the composition. More difficult to form complex heterostructures.
II-VI	3	Mercury zinc selenide	HgZnSe
II-V	4	Zinc cadmium phosphide arsenide	(Zn_1−xCd_x)₃(P_1−yAs_y)₂^[51]	0^[26]	1.5^[52]		Various applications in optoelectronics (incl. photovoltaics), electronics andthermoelectrics.^[53]
other	4	Copper indium gallium selenide, CIGS	Cu(In,Ga)Se₂	1	1.7	direct	CuIn_xGa_1–xSe₂. Polycrystalline. Used inthin film solar cells.

References

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Photovoltaics

Concepts

Technology	Photovoltaics Photoelectric effect Solar irradiance Solar constant Solar-cell efficiency Quantum efficiency Nominal power (Watt-peak) Thin-film solar cell Multi-junction solar cell Third-generation photovoltaic cell Solar cell research Thermophotovoltaic Thermodynamic efficiency limit Sun-free photovoltaics Polarizing organic photovoltaics
Materials	List of semiconductor materials Crystalline silicon (c-Si) Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si) Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) Cadmium telluride Copper indium gallium selenide Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
History	Growth of photovoltaics Timeline of solar cells

Photovoltaic
system

Solar cells	Nanocrystal solar cell Organic solar cell Quantum dot solar cell Hybrid solar cell Plasmonic solar cell Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics Dye-sensitized solar cell Cadmium telluride photovoltaics Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells Printed solar panel Perovskite solar cell Heterojunction solar cell
System components	Solar panel Balance of system Solar charge controller Solar inverter Photovoltaic mounting system Solar tracker Solar shingles Solar mirror Synchronverter
System concepts	Maximum power point tracking Fill factor Concentrated photovoltaics Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector Space-based solar power PV system performance

Applications

Appliances	Solar-powered refrigerator Solar air conditioning Solar lamp Solar charger Solar-powered pump Solar-powered watch Solar Tuki Photovoltaic keyboard Solar road stud Solar-powered calculator Solar-powered radio Solar-powered flashlight Solar-powered fan Solar street light Solar traffic light
Land transport	Solar vehicle Solar car Solar roadway Solar golf cart The Quiet Achiever
Air transport	Electric aircraft Mauro Solar Riser Solar panels on spacecraft Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One Gossamer Penguin Qinetiq Zephyr Solar Challenger
Water transport	Solar boat
Solar vehicle racing	Solar car racing List of solar car teams Solar challenges World Solar Challenge American Solar Challenge Formula Sun Grand Prix Solar Cup Frisian Solar Challenge Solar Splash South African Solar Challenge Tour de Sol Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge

Generation
systems

PV power station	List of photovoltaic power stations
Building-mounted	Rooftop photovoltaic power station Building-integrated photovoltaics Solar Ark
By country	Australia Belgium Bulgaria Canada Chile China Czech Republic France Germany Greece India Italy Japan Netherlands Romania South Africa Spain Switzerland Thailand United Kingdom US

PV companies

By country	List of countries by photovoltaics production
Individual producers	First Solar Hanwha Q CELLS JA Solar Motech Solar REC Sharp Solar Frontier Solyndra Sungen Solar Sunpower Suntech Trina Solar Yingli Solar

Category
Commons

v t e Semiconductor lasers
Basic types	Laser diode (LD) Double heterostructure laser (DH) Separate confinement heterostructure laser (SCH) Distributed Bragg reflector laser (DBR) Distributed-feedback laser (DFB) Quantum well laser Quantum dot laser Quantum-cascade laser (QCL) External-cavity laser (ECL)
Hybrid types	Volume Bragg grating laser
Other Types	Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser (VECSEL) Hybrid silicon laser Interband cascade laser (ICL) Semiconductor ring laser Polariton laser
Theory	Semiconductor laser theory Laser diode rate equations
Materials	Indium arsenide (InAs) Gallium arsenide (GaAs) List of semiconductor materials