The following is a list of websites, separated by country and sub-categorized by region ordisinformation campaign, that have both been considered by journalists and researchers as distributing false news - or otherwise participating indisinformation - and have been designated by journalists and researchers as likely being linked to political actors.

The following websites are linked to an Algerian marketing/public relations firm, Ayam Agency. They are related to a network of Facebook pages and accounts removed in 2021 forcoordinated inauthentic behavior, which was part of a campaign thatGraphika described as "a multi-year cross-platform effort to advance the interests of Algerian PresidentAbdelmadjid Tebboune".^[1]

The following websites are related to a network of Facebook pages and accounts removed in 2021 forcoordinated inauthentic behavior. They are linked to a pseudonymous individual that is suspected of being sponsored by the government ofFaustin-Archange Touadéra and/or advisors from Russia.^[22]

Indian Chronicles, dubbed by the EU Disinfo Lab, is aninfluence operation initiated by Srivastava Group starting in 2005 and enabled byAsian News International in order to promote Indian interests and disparage Pakistan and China. The operation created a network of at least 500 fake news websites and had targeted 116 countries. Srivastava Group had co-sponsored a trip of 27Members of European Parliament to visitKashmir and meet withNarendra Modi in 2019.^[55][56]

Endless Mayfly, dubbed byCitizen Lab, is an Iran-affiliated disinformation campaign of inauthentic social media accounts and fake news websites that, according to Citizen Lab, "spreads falsehoods and amplifies narratives critical of Saudi Arabia, the United States, and Israel."^[66] It is notable for using a technique that Citizen Lab described as "ephemeral disinformation": When an article from the campaign received significant engagement on social media, it was deleted and URLs were linked to the website that the article was falsely portraying.^[66]

The International Union of Virtual Media is described by theAtlantic Council as "a cluster of ostensibly independent websites that aggressively repackaged and re-broadcast Iranian state media",^[69] without citation.^[70] The network has been taken down by Facebook, Twitter, and Google forcoordinated inauthentic behavior.^[70]

Storm-2035, dubbed byMicrosoft Threat Analysis Center in August 2024, is attributed by Microsoft researchers to "an Iranian network" and described by them as a collection of fake news websites that has been active since at least 2020 and has targeted both conservative and liberal audiences in the United States.^[74] At least some of their content has been alleged by Microsoft to be created bygenerative artificial intelligence models to repost content from United States-based news outlets without attribution.^[74] Such outlets include The Guardian, The Week, Newsweek, and the Los Angeles Times.^[75][76] An investigation fromOpenAI found that the network usedChatGPT to generate articles and social media comments.^[77] A network of social media accounts that promoted one of the sites was taken down in 2022 by Twitter forcoordinated inauthentic behavior.^[74]

Starting in October 2023, the Israeli government via theMinistry of Diaspora Affairs supported whatThe New York Times andHaaretz described as an "influence campaign" that primarily targeted Black lawmakers in theDemocratic Party, as well as young left-leaning residents of the United States and Canada.^[86][87] The ministry hired Stoic, an Israeli political marketing firm, to conduct the operation,^[86][87] dubbed Zeno Zeno byOpenAI.^[88] Social media accounts and pages linked to the campaign were taken down byMeta in 2024 forcoordinated inauthentic behavior,^[89][86] including the use of profile pictures created bygenerative adversarial networks and possibly hijacked accounts.^[90] Many social media posts from the campaign were created byChatGPT.^[86]

Shanghai Haixun Technology Co., Ltd (上海海讯社科技有限公司), a Chinese public relations firm, is linked to aninfluence campaign (titled "HaiEnergy" byMandiant) to promotepositive energy, which Mandiant defines as "messages positively portraying the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the Chinese Government, and its policies."^[106] Mandiant alleged that the firm had possiblystaged protests in Washington D.C. in 2022 involving religious freedom and theUyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act.^[107]

Shenzhen Haimaiyunxiang Media Co., Ltd., a Chinese public relations firm, is linked to an influence campaign (titled "PAPERWALL" byCitizen Lab) to "[disseminate] pro-Beijing disinformation andad hominem attacks".^[108] Citizen Lab concludes that their analysis "[confirms] the increasingly important role private firms play in the realm of digital influence operations and the propensity of the Chinese government to make use of them."^[108]