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Poetry groups and movements or schools may be self-identified by the poets that form them or defined by critics who see unifying characteristics of a body of work by more than one poet. To be a 'school' a group of poets must share a common style or a common ethos. A commonality of form is not in itself sufficient to define a school; for example,Edward Lear,George du Maurier andOgden Nash do not form a school simply because they all wrotelimericks.
There are many different 'schools' of poetry. Some of them are described below in approximate chronological sequence. The subheadings indicate broadly the century in which a style arose.
Theoral tradition is too broad to be a strict school but it is a useful grouping of works whose origins either predate writing, or belong to cultures without writing.[1]
China: Zenith ofHan poetry, a movement away from the ancient Chinese poetry of theClassic of Poetry and theChu Ci.[2]
China:Jian'an poetry, a poetic movement occurring during theend of the Han dynasty, in the state of Cao Wei.
China:Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, a group of poets active during the late Cao Wei to early Jin dynasty era, poets incorporating the Wei-Jin Xuanxue movement.
China: Start ofSix Dynasties poetry (220–589).
China:Six Dynasties poetry period (220–589).
China: Emergence ofMidnight Songs poetry.
China:Orchid Pavilion Gathering of 353, which led to the publication of theLantingji Xu and the related movement in Classical Chinese poetry.
China:Six Dynasties poetry period (220–589).
China: Emergence ofYongming poetry (483-93) within the state of Southern Qi, a major movement within Classical Chinese poetry.
China: End of theSix Dynasties poetry period (220–589).
China: Emergence of the briefSui poetry movement of the Sui dynasty (581–618).
China: Emergence ofTang poetry (618–907), and the Early Tang (初唐) and High Tang (盛唐) movements.
China: Period ofTang poetry (618–907), and the zenith of the High Tang (盛唐) movement, leading into the Middle Tang (中唐) movement.
China: Period ofTang poetry (618–907), and the end of the Middle Tang (中唐) movement, leading into the Late Tang (晚唐) movement.
China: Emergence ofSong poetry (960–1279).
China: Emergence ofYuan poetry (1271–1368).
TheSicilian School was a small community ofSicilian and mainland Italian poets between 1230 and 1266 headed byGiacomo da Lentini.[3][4]
China: Emergence ofMing poetry (1368–1644).
Scotland:The Makars were a diverse genere of Scottish poets who wrote during theNorthern Renaissance.
Mannerism was a movement and style that emerged in the later ItalianHigh Renaissance. Mannerism in poetry is notable for its elegant, highly florid style and intellectual sophistication.[5][6][7] The style involved poetry ofMichelangelo,Clément Marot,Giovanni della Casa,Giovanni Battista Guarini,Torquato Tasso,Veronica Franco, andMiguel de Cervantes.
Petrarchism was a trans-European movement ofPetrarch's style followers, partially coincident with Mannerism, includingPietro Bembo,Michelangelo,Mellin de Saint-Gelais,Vittoria Colonna,Clément Marot,Garcilaso de la Vega,Giovanni della Casa,Thomas Wyatt,Henry Howard,Joachim du Bellay,Edmund Spenser, andPhilip Sidney.[8][9]
Scotland:Castalian Band.
TheBaroque poetry replacedMannerism and includes several schools, especially most artificial poetic style of the early 17th-century.[11][12] It involvedGiambattista Marino,Lope de Vega,John Donne,Vincent Voiture,Pedro Calderón de la Barca,Georges de Scudéry,Georg Philipp Harsdörffer,John Milton,Andreas Gryphius, andChristian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau.
Classical poetry movement echoes the forms and values of classicalancient Greek andLatin literature, favouring formal, restrained forms. Major dramatist and other genres figures includePierre Corneille,Molière,Jean Racine,John Dryden,William Wycherley,William Congreve, andJoseph Addison.[13]
Marinism was Italian Baroque poetic school and techniques ofGiambattista Marino and his followers was based on its use of extravagant and excessiveextended metaphor and lavish descriptions.[14][15] Among Giambattista Marino's followers wereCesare Rinaldi,Bartolomeo Tortoletti,Emanuele Tesauro,Francesco Pona,Francesco Maria Santinelli, and others.
Conceptismo was a Baroque poetic school in theSpanish literature, a similar to the Marinism.[16][17] Major figures includeFrancisco de Quevedo andBaltasar Gracián.
Culteranismo was another Spanish Baroque movement, in contrast toConceptismo, characterized by an ornamental, ostentatious vocabulary and a highly latinal syntax.[18][19] It involved such poets asLuis de Góngora,Hortensio Félix Paravicino,Conde de Villamediana, andJuana Inés de la Cruz.
ThePrécieuses was a French Baroque movement, similar to the Spanishculteranismo. Its main features are the refined language of aristocratic salons,periphrases,hyperbole, andpuns on the theme of gallant love.[20] Poets associated with the Précieuses wereVincent Voiture,Charles Cotin,Antoine Godeau, andIsaac de Benserade.
Metaphysical poets was an English Baroque school using extended conceit, often (though not always) about religion.[21][22] They include such figures asJohn Donne,George Herbert,Andrew Marvell.
Cavalier poets in England were Baroqueroyalist group, writing primarily aboutcourtly love, calledSons of Ben (afterBen Jonson) and includedRichard Lovelace withWilliam Davenant.[23]
ThePegnesischer Blumenorden (1644 – present) is a German Baroque literary society represented theNuremberg Poetic School ofGeorg Philipp Harsdörffer and other figures.
Emergence ofQing poetry (1644–1912) in China.
Danrin school in Japan.
The 17th-century Classicism has recurred in variousNeoclassical schools and poets such asVoltaire andFriedrich Gottlieb Klopstock since the eighteenth century.[24]
Augustan poets such asAlexander Pope.[25]
Rococo, also known as Late Baroque, is the final expression of the Baroque movement that began in France in the 1730s and characterized by a cheerful lightness and intimacy of tone, and an elegant playfulness in eroticlight poetry and principally small literary forms.[26][27] The poets associated with style arePaolo Rolli,Pietro Metastasio,Friedrich von Hagedorn, P. J. Bernard,Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim,Johann Uz,Johann Nikolaus Götz,Christoph Martin Wieland,Alexandre Masson de Pezay, Abbé de Favre,Évariste de Parny,Ippolit Bogdanovich, and others.
TheSturm und Drang was a from 1767 till 1785 literary group, precursor to theRomanticism. Its literature often features a protagonist which is driven by emotion, impulse and other motives that run counter to the enlightenment rationalism.[28][29] The key members wereJohann Wolfgang von Goethe withFriedrich Schiller, among other poetsHeinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg,Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, andGottfried August Bürger.
Romanticism started in the late 18th century Western Europe, but existed largely within the nineteenth. Wordsworth's and Coleridge's 1798 publication of Lyrical Ballads is considered by some as the first important publication in the movement. Romanticism stressed strong emotion, imagination, freedom within or even from classical notions of form in art, and the rejection of established social conventions. It stressed the importance of "nature" in language and celebrated the achievements of those perceived as heroic individuals and artists. Romantic poets includeWilliam Blake,William Wordsworth,Samuel Taylor Coleridge,Lord Byron,Percy Bysshe Shelley, andJohn Keats (those previous six sometimes referred to as the Big Six, or the Big Five without Blake); other Romantic poets includeJames Macpherson,Robert Southey,Emily Brontë,Adelbert von Chamisso,Alexander Pushkin, andMikhail Lermontov.[30]
TheLake Poets was a group of Romantic poets from the EnglishLake District who wrote about nature and thesublime. Among them wereWilliam Wordsworth,Samuel Taylor Coleridge, andRobert Southey.[31]
ThePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a primarily English art and poetic school, founded in 1848, based ostensibly on undoing innovations by the painterRaphael. Some members were both painters and poets.[32] Most significant figures includeDante Gabriel Rossetti andChristina Rossetti.
TheFleshly School was realistic, sensual school of poets.
TheTranscendentalists were from the mid-19th-century American movement: poetry and philosophy concerned withself-reliance, independence from modern technology.[33] It includesRalph Waldo Emerson andHenry David Thoreau.
TheAesthetes were an artistic and literary movement ofVictorian era from 1860s related to theDecadent Movement that cultivated beauty, rather than didactic purpose, and illustrated by the slogan "art for art's sake." The poets most strongly associated with the aestheticism areDante Gabriel Rossetti,Algernon Charles Swinburne,Oscar Wilde, andA. E. Housman.[34][35][36][37]
TheParnassians were a group of the 1860s–1890sFrench poets, named after their journal, theParnasse contemporain. They includedCharles Leconte de Lisle,Théodore de Banville,Sully Prudhomme,Paul Verlaine,François Coppée, andJosé María de Heredia. Non-French parnassians wereFelicjan Faleński,Alberto de Oliveira,Olavo Bilac, and others. In reaction to the looser forms of romantic poetry, they strove for exact and faultless workmanship, selecting exotic and classical subjects, which they treated with rigidity of form and emotional detachment.[38]
Symbolism started in the late 19th century in France andBelgium. It includedPaul Verlaine,Tristan Corbière,Arthur Rimbaud, andStéphane Mallarmé.Alexandru Macedonski was a prominentRomanian symbolist. Symbolists believed that art should aim to capture more absolute truths which could be accessed only by indirect methods. They used extensive metaphor, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. They were hostile to "plain meanings, declamations, false sentimentality and matter-of-fact description".[39][40]
Russian symbolism arose enough separately from West European symbolism, emphasizing mysticism ofSophiology anddefamiliarization. Its most significant poets includedAlexander Blok,Valery Bryusov,Fyodor Sologub,Konstantin Balmont,Vyacheslav Ivanov,Dmitry Merezhkovsky,Zinaida Gippius, andAndrei Bely.[39][40][41]
Irish Literary Revival was a movement withinCeltic Revival in the late 19th and early 20th century that advocated rebirth of creativity inIrish language and included such poets asGeorge Sigerson,W. B. Yeats,Roger Casement, andThomas MacDonagh.[42]
Modernist poetry is a broad term for poetry written between 1890 and 1970 in the tradition ofModernist literature.[43][44] Schools within it include already 20th-centuryAcmeist poetry,Imagism,Objectivism, and theBritish Poetry Revival.
TheFireside Poets (also known as the "Schoolroom" or "Household Poets") were a group ofAmerican poets fromNew England. The group is usually described as comprisingHenry Wadsworth Longfellow,William Cullen Bryant,John Greenleaf Whittier,James Russell Lowell, andOliver Wendell Holmes Sr.
TheMahjari poets (émigré school) was aneo-romantic movement withinArabic-language poets in the Americas (Ameen Rihani,Kahlil Gibran,Nasib Arida,Mikhail Naimy,Elia Abu Madi), that appeared at the turn of the 20th century.[45][46][47][48]
New peasant poets was the conditional collective name of a group of peasant origin and country trend during theSilver Age of Russian Poetry. The key figures includeNikolai Klyuev, Pyotr Oreshin, Alexander Shiryaevets,Sergei Klychkov, andSergei Yesenin.[49]
TheFuturists were anavant-garde, largely Italian and Russian, movement codified in 1909 by theManifesto of Futurism. They managed to create a new language free of syntax punctuation, and metrics that allowed for free expression. Poets involved with FuturismFilippo Tommaso Marinetti,Giovanni Papini,Mina Loy,Aldo Palazzeschi,Velimir Khlebnikov,Almada Negreiros,Vladimir Mayakovsky,Stanisław Młodożeniec, andJaroslav Seifert.[50][51][52]
TheCubo-Futurists were an avant-garde art and poetry movement withinRussian Futurism in the 1910s with practice ofzaum, the experimental visual and sound poetry.[53][54][55] Their major figures includeDavid Burliuk,Velimir Khlebnikov,Aleksei Kruchyonykh, andVladimir Mayakovsky.
TheEgo-Futurists were another poetry school within Russian Futurism during the 1910s, based on a personality cult.[53][56] Most prominent figures among them areIgor Severyanin andVasilisk Gnedov.
TheAcmeists were a Russian modernist poetic school, which emerged ca. 1911 and to symbols preferred direct expression through exact images.[57][58][59][60] Figures involved with Acmeism includeNikolay Gumilev,Osip Mandelstam,Mikhail Kuzmin,Anna Akhmatova, andGeorgiy Ivanov.
TheImagists were (predominantly young) modernist poets working in England and America in the early 20th century (from 1914), includingF. S. Flint,T. E. Hulme,Richard Aldington andHilda Doolittle (known primarily by her initials, H.D.). They rejectedRomantic andVictorian conventions, favoring precise imagery and clear, non-elevated language.[61]Ezra Pound formulated and promoted many precepts and ideas of Imagism. His "In a Station of the Metro" (Roberts & Jacobs, 717), written in 1916, is often used as an example of Imagist poetry:
TheDada avant-garde movement touted by its proponents (Jean Arp,Kurt Schwitters,Tristan Tzara) as anti-art, dada focused on going against artistic norms and conventions.[62]
TheImaginists were avant-garde post-Russian Revolution of 1917 poetic movement that created poetry based on sequences of arresting and uncommon images.[63] The major figures includeSergei Yesenin,Anatoly Marienhof, andRurik Ivnev.
TheProletarian poetry is a genre ofpolitical poetry developed in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s that endeavored to portray class-conscious perspectives of theworking-class.[64] Connected through their mutual political message that may be either explicitlyMarxist or at leastsocialist, the poems are often aesthetically disparate.[65]
TheHarlem Renaissance was a cultural movement in the 1920s involving many African-American writers from the New York Neighbourhood of Harlem.[66]
TheOBERIU was a short-lived influential Soviet Russian avant-garde art group in Leningrad from 1927 to repressions in 1931, which held provocative performances, that foreshadowed the Europeantheatre of the absurd, nonsensical illogicalabsurd verse and prose. Members associated with it wereDaniil Kharms,Alexander Vvedensky,Nikolay Zabolotsky,Nikolay Oleynikov,Konstantin Vaginov, Igor Bekhterev (ru), and Yury Vladimirov (ru).[67]
TheObjectivists were a loose-knit group of second-generation Modernists from the 1930s. They includeLouis Zukofsky,Lorine Niedecker,Charles Reznikoff,George Oppen,Carl Rakosi, andBasil Bunting. Objectivists treated the poem as an object; they emphasised sincerity, intelligence, and the clarity of the poet's vision.[68]
The "Apollo Society" with the magazineApollo was a neo-romantic group, formed inCairo, Egypt in 1932. Its members wereAhmed Zaki Abu Shadi (founder),Ibrahim Nagi,Ali Mahmoud Taha, andAbu al-Qasim al-Shabbi.[69][70][48]
TheBlack Mountain poets (also known as theProjectivists) were a group of the mid-20th-century (from the 1950) avant-garde andpostmodern poets associated withBlack Mountain College in the United States.[71]
TheSan Francisco Renaissance was initiated byKenneth Rexroth andMadeline Gleason in Berkeley in the 1950s. It includedRobert Duncan,Jack Spicer, andRobin Blaser. They were consciously experimental and had close links to the Black Mountain and Beat poets.[72]
TheBeat Generation poets or theBeats met in New York in the 1950s–1960s. The core group wereJack Kerouac,Allen Ginsberg, andWilliam S. Burroughs, who were joined later byGregory Corso.[73]
TheNew York School was an informal group of poets active in 1950sNew York City whose work was said to be a reaction to the Confessionalists. Some major figures includeJohn Ashbery,Frank O'Hara,James Schuyler,Kenneth Koch,Barbara Guest,Joe Brainard,Ron Padgett,Ted Berrigan andBill Berkson.[74]
TheConcrete poetry was an avant-garde movement started in Brazil during the 1950s, characterized for extinguishing the general conception of poetry, creating a new language called ''verbivocovisual''.[75] its significant figures areAugusto de Campos,Haroldo de Campos, andDécio Pignatari.
The Movement was a group of English writers includingKingsley Amis,Philip Larkin,Donald Alfred Davie,D. J. Enright,John Wain,Elizabeth Jennings andRobert Conquest. Their tone is anti-romantic and rational.[76] The connection between the poets was described as "little more than a negative determination to avoid bad principles."
The "Modernist School", the "Blue Star", and the "Epoch" were modernist, including avant-garde andsurrealism,Chinese poetic groups founded in 1954 inTaiwan and led by Qin Zihao (1902–1963) and Ji Xian (b. 1903).[77][78]
Confessional poetry was an American movement that emerged in the late 1950s and the 1960s. They drew on personal history for theirartistic inspiration. Poets in this group includeSylvia Plath,Anne Sexton,John Berryman, andRobert Lowell.[79]
Soviet nonconformism was a dissident, stylistically diverse art "movement" in the post-Stalinist era Soviet Union from 1950s to 1980s in opposition to officialsocialist realism.[80][81][82] Poets involved with it Evgenii Kropivnitsky,Varlam Shalamov,Yury Dombrovsky,Aleksandr Galich,Igor Kholin,Naum Korzhavin, Yury Aikhenvald,Genrikh Sapgir,Vilen Barskyi, Roald Mandelstam, Leonid Chertkov,Gennadiy Aygi, Stanislav Krasovitsky, Vsevolod Nekrasov,Yuliy Kim,Anri Volokhonsky,Andrei Bitov,Igor Sinyavin,Joseph Brodsky,Alexei Khvostenko,Yevgeny Kharitonov,Dmitry Prigov, Kari Unksova,Ry Nikonova,Oleg Grigoriev,Eduard Limonov,Viktor Krivulin, Sergey Stratanovsky, Vladimir Erl, Elena Ignatova,Serge Segay,Lev Rubinstein, Aleksandr Mironov,Elena Shvarts, and Sergey Gandlevsky.[82][83]
TheLiverpool poets, also known as theMersey Beat poets, wereAdrian Henri,Brian Patten andRoger McGough from the 1960s. Their work was an English equivalent to the American Beats.
TheHungry generation was a group of about 40 poets in West Bengal, India during 1961–1965 who revolted against the colonial canons in Bengali poetry and wanted to go back to their roots. The movement was spearheaded byShakti Chattopadhyay,Malay Roy Choudhury,Samir Roychoudhury, andSubimal Basak.
TheLanguage poets were American avant garde poets who emerged in the 1960s-1990s; their approach started with the modernist emphasis on method.[84][85] They were reacting to the poetry of the Black Mountain and Beat poets. The poets included:Leslie Scalapino,Bruce Andrews,Charles Bernstein,Ron Silliman,Barrett Watten,Lyn Hejinian,Bob Perelman,Rae Armantrout,Carla Harryman,Clark Coolidge,Hannah Weiner,Susan Howe, andTina Darragh.
TheMinimalism is an avantgardist artistic, dramatic and literary movement in the late 1960s and '70s U.S. emerged, is characterized by an economy with words and a focus on surface description. The poets who identified with it areSamuel Beckett,Grace Paley,Raymond Carver,Robert Grenier,Aram Saroyan, andJon Fosse.[86][87][88]
TheBritish Poetry Revival was a loose wide-reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It was a modernist reaction to the conservativeThe Movement. The leading poets includedJ. H. Prynne,Eric Mottram,Tom Raworth,Denise Riley, andLee Harwood.[89][90]
TheMisty Poets are a group ofChinese poets whose style is defined by the obscurity of its imagery and metaphors. The movement was born after theCultural Revolution, mainly from the 1970s. Leading members includeBei Dao,Duo Duo,Shu Ting,Yang Lian,Gu Cheng, and alsoHai Zi.[77][91][92]
TheMartian poets were English poets of the 1970s and early 1980s, includingCraig Raine andChristopher Reid. Through the heavy use of curious, exotic, and humorous metaphors, Martian poetry aimed to break the grip of "the familiar" in English poetry, by describing ordinary things as if through the eyes of a Martian.
TheNuyorican poets of the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s wrote and recited dramatic poetry in Spanish,Spanglish, and English with humor and rage about social injustice, ethnic and racial discrimination, and U.S. colonialism in Latin America and the Caribbean. Leaders of the Nuyorican poetry movement includePedro Pietri,Miguel Algarín, andGiannina Braschi.[93][94] TheNuyorican movement gave rise toPoetry slams, a performing arts practice developed atopen mic venues such as theNuyorican Poets Cafe inLoisada of New York City.[95]
TheMoscow Conceptualists were a movement withinSoviet nonconformist art emerged during the 1970s and related to westernconceptual andneo-conceptual art in which theconcept(s) involved in the work are prioritized equally to or more than traditional aesthetic or material concerns. The Moscow group included not only artists but also poets Vsevolod Nekrasov,Dmitry Prigov,Lev Rubinstein,Anna Alchuk, and Timur Kibirov.[96][97][98]
TheMetarealists, namely metaphysical realists, in the 1970s–90s unofficial postmodern Soviet and Russian poetry, who all used complex metaphors which they called meta-metaphors. Their representatives are Konstantin Kedrov,Viktor Krivulin, Elena Katsyuba, Ivan Zhdanov,Elena Shvarts, Vladimir Aristov, Aleksandr Yeryomenko,Yuri Arabov, andAlexei Parshchikov.[97][99][100]
TheNew Formalism is a movement originating ca. 1977 in American poetry that promotes a return to metrical and rhymed verse.[101][102] Rather than looking to the Confessionalists, they look toRobert Frost,Richard Wilbur,James Merrill,Anthony Hecht, andDonald Justice for poetic influence. These poets are associated with theWest Chester University Poetry Conference, and with literary journals likeThe New Criterion andThe Hudson Review. Associated poets includeDana Gioia,X.J. Kennedy,Timothy Steele,Mark Jarman,Rachel Hadas,R. S. Gwynn,Charles Martin,Phillis Levin,Kay Ryan,Brad Leithauser.
TheNew Sincerity is a cultural movement and trend that matured in the 1990s within Postmodernism, primarily in America, preferring sincerity ethos to the hegemony of postmodernist irony and cynicism.[103][104] Poets named as associated with this movement have includedDavid Berman,Catherine Wagner,Dean Young,Miranda July,Tao Lin,Steve Roggenbuck,Frederick Seidel,Arielle Greenberg,Karyna McGlynn, andMira Gonzalez.[105]
An emergent movement across poetry is termed Poelectics, a general trend among many poets to vary subject, mode and form according to the artistic impetus, situation or commission at hand.[106][107] This can be observed across contemporary published poetry in the West as an intensification within individual poets' oeuvres of "all kinds of style, subject, voice, register and form"[108] which replaces, in large measure, the more conventional or traditional search by authors for a singular definitive poetic voice.
This is alist of poetry groups and movements.
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