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List of most massive stars

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about mass. For radius, seeList of largest stars.

This is alist of the most massive stars that have been discovered, insolar mass units (M☉).

Uncertainties and caveats

[edit]

Most of the masses listed below are contested and, being the subject of current research, remain under review and subject to constant revision of their masses and other characteristics. Indeed, many of the masses listed in the table below are inferred from theory, using difficult measurements of thestars'temperatures,composition, andabsolute brightnesses. All the masses listed below are uncertain: Both the theory and the measurements are pushing the limits of current knowledge and technology. Both theories and measurements could be incorrect.

Artist's impression of disc of obscuring material around a massive star.

Complications with distance and obscuring clouds

[edit]

Since massive stars are rare,astronomers must look very far fromEarth to find them. All the listed stars are many thousands of light years away making their light especially faint, which makes measurements difficult. In addition to being far away, many stars of such extreme mass are surrounded by clouds of outflowing gas created by extremely powerfulstellar winds; the surrounding gas interferes with the already difficult-to-obtain measurements of stellar temperatures and brightnesses, which greatly complicates the issue of estimating internal chemical compositions and structures.[a]This obscuration leads to difficulties in determining the parameters needed to calculate the star's mass.

Eta Carinae is the bright spot hidden in thedouble-lobed dust cloud. It is the most massive star that has aBayer designation. It was only discovered to be (at least) two stars in the past few decades.

Both the obscuring clouds and the great distances also make it difficult to judge whether the star is just a single supermassive object or, instead, amultiple star system. A number of the "stars" listed below may actually be two or more companions orbiting too closely for our telescopes to distinguish, each star possibly being massive in itself but not necessarily "supermassive" to either be on this list, or near the top of it.And certainly other combinations are possible – for example a supermassive star with one or more smaller companions or more than one giant star – but without being able to clearly see inside the surrounding cloud, it is difficult to know what kind of object is actually generating the bright point of light seen from the Earth.

More globally, statistics on stellar populations seem to indicate that the upper mass limit is in the 120-solar-mass range,[1] so any mass estimate above this range is suspect.

Rare reliable estimates

[edit]

Eclipsing binary stars are the only stars whose masses are estimated with some confidence. However, note that almost all of the masses listed in the table below were inferred by indirect methods; only a few of the masses in the table were determined using eclipsing systems.

Amongst the most reliable listed masses are those for the eclipsing binariesNGC 3603-A1,WR 21a, andWR 20a. Masses for all three were obtained from orbital measurements.[b] This involves measuring theirradial velocities and also their light curves. The radial velocities only yield minimum values for the masses, depending on inclination, but light curves of eclipsing binaries provide the missing information: inclination of the orbit to our line of sight.

Relevance of stellar evolution

[edit]

Some stars may once have been more massive than they are today. Many large stars have likely suffered significant mass loss – perhaps as much as several tens of solar masses. The lost mass is expected to have been expelled bysuperwinds: high velocity winds that are driven by the hotphotosphere into interstellar space. The process forms an enlarged extended envelope around the star that interacts with the nearby interstellar medium and infuses the adjacent volume of space with elements heavier than hydrogen or helium.[c]

There are also – or ratherwere – stars that might have appeared on the list but no longer exist as stars, or aresupernova impostors; today we see only their debris.[d] The masses of the precursor stars that fueled these destructive events can be estimated from the type of explosion and the energy released, but those masses arenot listed here.

This listonly concerns "living" stars – those which are still seen by Earth-based observers existing as active stars: Still engaged in interiornuclear fusion that generates heat and light. That is, the light now arriving at the Earth as images of the stars listed still shows them to internally generatenew energy as of the time (in the distant past) that light now being received was emitted. The list specifically excludes bothwhite dwarfs – former stars that are now seen to be "dead" but radiating residual heat – andblack holes – fragmentary remains of exploded stars which havegravitationally collapsed, even though accretion disks surrounding those black holes might generate heat or lightexterior to the star's remains (now inside the black hole), radiated by infalling matter (see§ Black holes below).

Mass limits

[edit]

There are two related theoretical limits on how massive a star can possibly be: Theaccretion mass limit and theEddington mass limit.

  • Theaccretion limit is related to star formation: After about120M☉ have accreted in aprotostar, the combined mass should have become hot enough for its heat to drive away any further incoming matter. In effect, the protostar reaches a temperature where it evaporates away material already collected as fast as it collects new material.
  • TheEddington limit is based on light pressure from the core of an already-formed star: As mass increases past~150M☉, the intensity of light radiated from aPopulation I star's core will become sufficient for the light-pressure pushing outward to exceed the gravitational force pulling inward, and the surface material of the star will be free to float away into space. Since their different compositions make them more transparent,Population II andPopulation III stars have higher and much higher mass limits, respectively.

Accretion limits

[edit]

Astronomers have long hypothesized that as aprotostar grows to a size beyond120M☉, something drastic must happen.[2] Although the limit can be stretched for very earlyPopulation III stars, and although the exact value is uncertain, if any stars still exist above150~200M☉ they would challenge current theories ofstellar evolution.

Studying theArches Cluster, which is currently the densest known cluster of stars inour galaxy, astronomers have confirmed that no stars in that cluster exceed about150M☉.

TheR136 cluster is an unusually dense collection of young, hot, blue stars.

Rare ultramassive stars that exceed this limit – for example in theR136 star cluster – might be explained by an exceptional event hypothesized to have occurred: some of the pairs of massivestars in close orbit in young, unstablemultiple-star systems must, on rare occasions, collide and merge when certain unusual circumstances hold that make a collision possible.[3]

Eddington mass limit

[edit]
Main article:Eddington luminosity

Eddington's limit on stellar mass arises because of light-pressure: For a sufficiently massive star the outward pressure ofradiant energy generated bynuclear fusion in the star's core exceeds the inward pull of its own gravity. The lowest mass for which this effect is active is theEddington limit.

Stars of greater mass have a higher rate of core energy generation, and heavier stars' luminosities increase far out of proportion to the increase in their masses. TheEddington limit is the point beyond which a star ought to push itself apart, or at least shed enough mass to reduce its internal energy generation to a lower, sustainable rate. The actual limit-point mass depends on how opaque the gas in the star is, and metal-richPopulation I stars have lower mass limits than metal-poorPopulation II stars. Before their demise, the hypothetical metal-freePopulation III stars would have had the highest allowed mass, somewhere around300M☉.

In theory, a more massive star could not hold itself together because of the mass loss resulting from the outflow of stellar material. In practice the theoreticalEddington Limit must be modified for high luminosity stars and the empiricalHumphreys–Davidson limit is used instead.[4]

List of the most massive known stars

[edit]
Legend
Wolf–Rayet star
Slash star
O-type star
B-type star orLBV

The following two lists show a few of the known stars, including the stars inopen clusters,OB associations, andH II regions. Despite their high luminosity, many of them are nevertheless too distant to be observed with the naked eye. Stars that are at least sometimes visible to the unaided eye have theirapparent magnitude (6.5 or brighter) highlighted with a sky blue background.

The first list gives stars that are estimated to be60M☉ or larger; the majority of which are shown. The second list includes some notable stars which are below60M☉ for the purpose of comparison. The method used to determine each star's mass is included to give an idea of the data's uncertainty; note that the mass of binary stars can be determined far more accurately. The masses listed below are the stars' current (evolved) mass, not their initial (formation) mass.

This list isincomplete; you can help byadding missing items.(January 2016)
Stars with60M☉ or greater
NameLocationM (M☉)L (L☉)Teff (K)Spectral typeDist. (ly)mVMass estimated byLinkRefs
R136a1R136291±467,244,000+699,000
−1,078,000		46,000+1,250
−2,375		WN5h163,00012.28±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[5][6][7][8]
BAT99-98NGC 20702265,012,00045,000WN6165,00013.5mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[9][10]
R136a2R136195±355,129,000+367,000
−342,000		47,000+1,000
−625		WN5h163,00012.80±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[5][6][7][8]
Melnick 42R1361893,631,00047,300O2If*163,00012.86mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
R136a3R136184±405,012,000+236,000
−226,000		50,000+2,500
−8,000		WN5h163,00012.97±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[5][6][7][8]
W51-57W511601,820,000–4,786,00042,700O4V20,000evolution[12]
HD 15558 AIC 1805≥152±51661,000O5.5III(f)24,4007.87
combined		binarySIMBAD[13][14]
W51-3W51148+105
−82		1,348,000+626,000
−437,000–3,890,000+4,238,000
−2,028,000		39,800O3V–O8V20,000evolutionSIMBAD[12]
Melnick 34 AR136147±222,692,000+544,000
−453,000		53,000±1,200WN5h163,00013.10
combined		mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[15][10]
VFTS 1022R136142.8+25.6
−25.2		3,020,000+782,000
−621,000		42,200O3.5If*/WN7164,00013.44evolutionSIMBAD[16]
R136cR136142.0+32.7
−24.7		3,802,000+1,568,000
−1,110,000		42,170±1,890WN5h163,00012.86evolutionSIMBAD[16][10][e]
LH 10-3209 ANGC 17631402,312,00050,900O3III(f*)160,00011.859±0.1751
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[17][18][19][e]
VFTS 682Runaway fromR136137.8+27.5
−15.9		3,236,000+838,000
−666,000		54,450±1,960WN5h164,00016.08evolutionSIMBAD[16]
VFTS 506NGC 2070136.8±24.22,692,00055,000ON2V((n))((f*))164,00013.31evolutionSIMBAD[20]
Melnick 34 BR136136±202,344,000+474,000
−394,000		53,000±1,200WN5h163,00013.10
combined		mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[15][10]
W51dW511351,288,000–2,884,00042,700O3V–O4V20,000evolution[12]
NGC 3603-BHD 97950132±132,884,000+504,000
−429,000		42,000±2,000WN6h24,80011.33evolutionSIMBAD[21][22]
HD 269810NGC 20291302,188,00052,500O2III(f*)163,00012.22spectroscopySIMBAD[23][24]
R136a7R136127+15
−16		2,291,000+280,000
−341,000		54,000+2,000
−3,000		O3III(f*)163,00013.97±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
WR 42eRunaway fromHD 979501233,200,00043,700O3If*/WN625,00014.529ejectionSIMBAD[25][f]
Sk -69° 249 ANGC 20741194,130,00038,900O7If160,00012.02±0.21
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[26][27]
Sk -69° 212NGC 20441192,377,00045,400O5III(f)160,00012.416±0.0600evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
ST5-31NGC 20741192,168,00050,700O3If*160,00012.273±0.084evolutionSIMBAD[26][28]
R136a5R136116+6
−5		2,089,000+149,000
−139,000		48,000±750O2I(n)f*157,00013.71±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
MSP 183Wd2115724,00049,000±3,000O3V((f))20,00013.878±0.017spectroscopySIMBAD[29][30]
WR 24Collinder 2281142,951,00050,100WN6ha-w14,0006.48evolutionSIMBAD[31][32]
NGC 3603-C1HD 97950113+11
−8		2,239,000+392,000
−333,000		44,000±2,000WN6h24,80011.89
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[21][22][e]
Arches-F9Arches Cluster111.32,239,00036,800WN8-925,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
VFTS 545R136110.4+18.9
−16.6		1,995,000+516,000
−410,000		47,320±1,700O2If*/WN5164,00013.40evolutionSIMBAD[16][10]
HSH95-36R136110±51,862,000+133,000
−124,000		49,500+750
−1,000		O2If*163,00014.41±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
Cygnus OB2 #12 ACygnus OB21101,660,00013,700B3–4Ia+5,20011.702
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[35][36][e]
Melnick 39 AR136109±71,585,000+654,000
−463,000		44,000±2,500O3If*/WN6-A160,00013.0
combined		binarySIMBAD[37]
R136a4R136108+6
−7		1,905,000+90,000
−207,000		50,000+500
−2,000		O3V((f*))(n)157,00013.96±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
VFTS 621NGC 20701071,380,00050,100O2V((f*))z164,00015.39mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
R136a6R136105+8
−10		1,738,000+124,000
−116,000		48,000±750O2I(n)f*p157,00013.35±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
W49-3W49105±201,514,000+528,000
−392,000		40,700+5,000
−4,400		O3–O7V36,200evolutionSIMBAD[38][39]
R99N441033,162,00028,000Ofpe/WN9164,00011.520±0.049mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[9][14]
Arches-F6Arches Cluster101.02,239,00034,700WN8-925,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
Arches-F1Arches Cluster100.91,995,00033,700WN8-925,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
Peony StarPeony Nebula1002,951,000+1,217,000
−862,000		25,100WN1026,000evolutionSIMBAD[40][39]
HD 93129 AaTrumpler 14100+25
−60		1,413,000+172,000
−154,000		52,000±3,000O2If*7,5007.310±0.011
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[41][14]
Mc30-1 AMercer 30993,236,00032,200O6–7.5If+40,000evolutionSIMBAD[42][g][e]
VFTS 1028R136991,230,00047,300O3III(f*) or O4–5V164,00013.82mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11]
WR 25 ATrumpler 16982,399,00050,100WN6h-w6,5008.80
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[31][14][e]
BI 253Runaway fromR13697.6+22.2
−23.1		1,175,000+410,000
−304,000		54,000±1,500O2V-III(n)((f*))164,00013.669±0.062evolutionSIMBAD[16][43]
R136a8R13696±61,479,000+106,000
−99,000		49,500±1,250O2–3V157,00014.42±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][8]
HM 1-6HM 1951,500,00044,800O5If11,00011.64evolutionSIMBAD[44][45]
NGC 3603-42HD 9795095946,00046,500O3III(f*)25,00012.86evolutionSIMBAD[17][22]
ST2-22NGC 2044941,247,00051,300O3V((f))160,00014.3evolutionSIMBAD[26][46]
VFTS 562NGC 2070941,122,00042,200O4V164,00013.66mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
NGC 3603-A1aHD 9795093.3±11.01,000,00037,000O3If*/WN624,80011.18
combined		eclipsing binarySIMBAD[47][21][22]
WR 21a ARunaway fromWd293.2+2.2
−1.9		1,514,000+224,000
−195,000		42,000O2.5If*/WN6ha26,10012.661±0.03combinedeclipsing binarySIMBAD[48][24]
HD 303308Trumpler 16931,138,00051,300O3V9,2008.17evolutionSIMBAD[44][24]
VFTS 512NGC 2070931,096,00047,300O2V-III((f*))164,00014.28mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
R136bR13692±52,239,000+160,000
−149,000		35,500±750O4If163,00013.24±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
VFTS 16Runaway fromR13691.6+11.5
−10.5		1,318,000+341,000
−271,000		50,600+500
−590		O2III-If*164,00013.546±0.010evolutionSIMBAD[16][10]
NGC 346-W1NGC 346911,500,00043,400O5.5If200,00012.57evolutionSIMBAD[26][49]
NGC 3603-A3HD 9795091863,00046,400O3III(f*)24,80012.95evolutionSIMBAD[17][22]
W49-2W4990–240,250±1204,365,000+3,397,000
−1,910,000		35,500+1,700
−1,600		O4If–O5.5If36,200spectroscopySIMBAD[38][39]
η Carinae ATrumpler 16904,000,0009,470 (near the top of the wind)LBV7,5006.48±0.01
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[50][51]
R146Runaway fromR13688.4+16.9
−15.8		1,950,000+505,000
−401,000		53,090±1,910WN5ha164,00013.116±0.0201evolutionSIMBAD[16][10]
WR 89HM 1872,138,00039,800WN8h11,00011.02±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[31][24]
VFTS 599NGC 207087977,00044,700O3III(f*)164,00013.80mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
Arches-F7Arches Cluster86.31,995,00033,700WN8-925,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
R147Runaway fromR13685.6+15.2
−16.6		2,291,000+593,000
−471,000		47,320±1,700WN5h164,00012.993±0.042evolutionSIMBAD[16][52]
Sk 80NGC 346851,500,00038,900O7If200,00012.31evolutionSIMBAD[26][53]
BAT99-92 BTarantula Nebula851,175,00023,000B1Ia165,00011.39±0.02combinedspectroscopySIMBAD[54]
Sk -70° 91BSDL 183084.09851,00048,849ON2III165,00012.78evolutionSIMBAD[55][18][h]
Sk -66° 172N6484.09851,00048,849O2III(f*)160,00013.1evolutionSIMBAD[55][18][i]
Sk -68° 137Runaway fromR13684.09851,00048,849O2III(f*)160,00013.346±0.0101evolutionSIMBAD[55][18]
LH 64-16NGC 200184.09851,00048849ON2III(f*)160,00013.666±0.010evolutionSIMBAD[55][28]
Melnick 33Na AR13683±191,413,000+725,000
−479,000		50,000±2,500OC2.5If*163,00013.79
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[56][57]
Melnick 39 BR13683±51,000,000+413,000
−292,000		48,000±2,500O3If*/WN6-A160,00013.0
combined		binarySIMBAD[37]
WR 20a AWd282.7±5.51,150,000±150,00043,000±2,000WN6ha20,00013.5
combined		eclipsing binarySIMBAD[58]
Arches-F2 AArches Cluster82±121,862,000+227,000
−203,000		34,100+2,000
−1,000		WN8–9h25,000eclipsing binarySIMBAD[59]
WR 20a BWd281.9±5.51,150,000±150,00043,000±2,000WN6ha20,00013.5
combined		eclipsing binarySIMBAD[58]
R139 ANGC 207081.6+7.5
−7.2		1,585,000+235,000
−205,000		34,000±1,100O6.5I163,00011.94
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[60]
Tr27-27Trumpler 27811,247,00037,200O8III((f))3,90013.31evolutionSIMBAD[44][24]
HSH95-46R13680+5
−6		1,259,000+59,000
−162,000		47,500+500
−2,500		O2-3III(f*)163,00014.56±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10]
Arches-F15Arches Cluster79.71,414,00035,800O4–6If25,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
BI 237BSDL 252779.66661,00051,269O2V((f*))165,00013.830±0.0431spectroscopySIMBAD[55][18][j]
VFTS 1017R13679.0+17.8
−15.9		1,622,000+420,000
−334,000		50,120±1,800O2If*/WN5164,00014.50evolutionSIMBAD[16][10]
VFTS 151Tarantula Nebula791,047,00042,200O6.5II(f)p164,000mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
VFTS 94Tarantula Nebula79955,00042,200O3.5Inf*p164,00014.161±0.0271mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][18]
VFTS 1018R13679832,00042,200O3III(f*)163,00014.34mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11]
LH 41-32NGC 191078946,00048,200O4III160,00013.086±0.0101evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
Pismis 24-17Pismis 2478851,000O3.5III5,90011.84spectroscopySIMBAD[61][45]
LSS 4067HM 1771,000,00040,000O4If11,00011.26±0.07evolutionSIMBAD[62][63]
W51-2W5177+26
−22		724000+167000
−136000–1288000+617000
−417000		42,700+2,000
−1,900		O3V–O5V20,000evolutionSIMBAD[12]
R139 BNGC 207076.4+7.1
−6.7		1,445,000+214,000
−187,000		34,700±1,100O7I163,00011.94
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[60]
NGC 346-W3NGC 346761,038,00051,300O3V200,00012.80±0.04evolutionSIMBAD[26][49]
BAT99-68NGC 2044761,000,00045,000O3If*/WN7165,00014.13mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[9][18]
HD 93632Collinder 22876946,00045,400O5III(f)10,0009.10evolutionSIMBAD[44][14]
AB1DEM S10751,175,00079,000WN3ha197,00015.24±0.02spectroscopySIMBAD[64][49][k]
VFTS 457NGC 207074.6+20.1
−9.2		1,585,000+410,000
−326,000		39,810±1,430O3.5If*/WN7164,00013.74evolutionSIMBAD[16][10]
HD 38282 ARunaway fromR13674±42,754,000+336,000
−300,000		50,000±2,000WN5/6h163,00011.11±0.03
combined		binarySIMBAD[65][24]
BAT99-6 ANGC 174774794,00045,000O3If*/WN7165,00011.95combinedspectroscopySIMBAD[54]
Pismis 24-1NEPismis 2474776,000O3.5If*6,500evolutionSIMBAD[61][66]
VFTS 608NGC 207074724,00042,200O4III(f)164,00014.22mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
HSH95-31R13673±3955,000+68,000
−64,000		47,500+1,000
−750		O2V((f*))163,00014.35evolutionSIMBAD[7][10]
Mc30-11Mercer 3073741,00036,800O5.5-6I-II40,000spectroscopySIMBAD[42][g]
VFTS 566NGC 207073708,00044,700O3III(f*)164,00014.05mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
Mc30-3Mercer 3073676,00039,300O6If40,000spectroscopySIMBAD[42][g]
NGC 2044-W35NGC 204472863,00048,200O4III160,00014.10evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
VFTS 216Tarantula Nebula72692,00044,700O4V((fc))164,00014.389±0.0641mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][18]
VFTS 542R13671.4+16.3
−11.3		1,445,000+374,000
−297,000		44,670±2,010O2If*/WN5164,00013.47evolutionSIMBAD[16][10]
VFTS 1021R13671.4+12.7
−9.2		1,259,000+326,000
−259,000		35,500±1,500O4If+164,00013.31evolutionSIMBAD[16]
VFTS 3Tarantula Nebula711,072,00021,000B1Ia+164,000spectroscopySIMBAD[67][10]
ST2-1NGC 204471946,00044,100O5.5III160,00014.3evolutionSIMBAD[26][46]
NGC 3603-A1bHD 9795070.4±9.31,000,00042,000O3If*/WN524,80011.18
combined		eclipsing binarySIMBAD[47][21][22]
Arches-F12Arches Cluster70.01,585,00037,300WN7–825,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
HD 37974N135701,400,00022,500B0.5Ia+163,00010.99±0.03spectroscopySIMBAD[68][24][l]
M33 X-7 BTriangulum Galaxy70.0±6.9525,000+92,000
−78,000		34,000–36,000O7III–O8III2,700,00018.70binarySIMBAD[69][70]
VFTS 125Tarantula Nebula69.6+22.3
−17.2		794,000+496,000
−281,000		55,150±5,520Ope164,00016.6evolutionSIMBAD[16][46]
HD 38282 BRunaway fromR13669±42,455,000+300,000
−267,000		45,000±2,000WN6/7h163,00011.11±0.03
combined		binarySIMBAD[65][24]
HD 229059Berkeley 87691,038,00026,300B1Ia3,0008.70evolutionSIMBAD[44][14]
ST2-32NGC 204469863,00045,400O5III160,00013.903±0.0921evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
ST2-3NGC 204469863,00044,100O5.5V160,00014.264±0.1241evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
W28-23NGC 203369655,00051,300O3V160,00013.702±0.050evolutionSIMBAD[26][28]
HD 46150NGC 22446941,100O5V((f))z5,2006.73evolutionSIMBAD[17][71]
HD 93403 ATrumpler 1668.5+12.3
−14.6		1,047,000+49,000
−47,000		39,300±1,100O5.5I10,4008.27±0.74
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[72][24]
HSH95-47R13668±4955,000+117,000
−64,000		43,500+1,750
−1,000		O2V((f*))163,00014.72±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
HSH95-48R13668±4912,000+65,000
−80,000		46,500+1,000
−1,500		O2–3III(f*)163,00014.75±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][8]
HD 93130Collinder 22868863,00039,900O7II(f)10,0008.04evolutionSIMBAD[44][14]
W51-61W5168398,000–1,259,00038,000O7.5V20,000evolutionSIMBAD[12][39]
Sk -69° 200NGC 2033671,038,00026,300B1I160,00011.18evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
BAT99-93LH 9967794,00045,000O3If*165,00013.446±0.0201mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[9][18]
Arches-F18Arches Cluster66.91,122,00037,300O4-6I25,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
Arches-F4Arches Cluster66.41,995,00037,300WN7-825,000spectroscopySIMBAD[33][34]
Z15Messier 8166.11,445,000+139,000
−127,000		25,000±1,000B0.511,986,00020.495spectroscopySIMBAD[73]
HD 5980 BNGC 34666±101,778,000+734,000
−519,000		45,000+10,000
−7,000		WN6−7200,00011.31±0.08
combined		binarySIMBAD[74][75]
BAT99-104R136661,148,00063,000O2If*/WN5165,00012.5mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[9][18]
Sk -67° 108LMC66±2933,000+67,000
−82,000		43,500+750
−1,000		O5III(f)164,00012.525evolutionSIMBAD[76]
HD 190429 AnearBarnard 14666.0+17.4
−13.4		912,00039,000O4If7,8007.09±0.01spectroscopySIMBAD[77][14]
LH 31-1003NGC 185866863,00041,900O6Ib(f)160,00013.186±0.0101evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
VFTS 169Tarantula Nebula66.0±9.8813,000+284,000
−210,000		47,000±1,500O2.5V(n)((f*))164,00014.437±0.0251evolutionSIMBAD[16][18]
Pismis 24-1SWPismis 2466646,000O4III6,500evolutionSIMBAD[61][66]
HSH95-89R13665+10
−9		977,000+198,000
−145,000		44,000±2,500O4V163,00014.76±0.01spectroscopySIMBAD[8]
HSH95-40R13665+6
−7		851,000+104,000
−159,000		47,500+2,000
−3,250		O3V163,00014.49evolutionSIMBAD[7][10]
HSH95-58R13665+6
−7		741,000+150,000
−96,000		47,500+3,000
−2,250		O2–3V163,00014.80±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
VFTS 63Tarantula Nebula65575,00042,200O5III(n)(fc)164,00014.4mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][46]
VFTS 145Tarantula Nebula65741,00039,800O8fp164,00014.30mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
VFTS 518NGC 207065562,00044,700O3.5III(f*)164,00015.11mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
W49-8W4965±13676,000+279,000
−197,000		40,700+5,000
−4,400		O3–O7V36,200evolutionSIMBAD[38][39]
BD+43° 3654Runaway fromCygnus OB264.62,030,000±210,00046,800±900O6If+5,40010.06±0.04evolutionSIMBAD[78][79]
Sk -70° 115LMC64+3
−2		1,047,000+101,000
−92,000		34,750±1,000O6.5Ifc164,00012.166±0.0900evolutionSIMBAD[76]
Sk -69° 25NGC 174864787,00043,600O6V((f))160,00011.886±0.0101evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
HSH95-50R13664+5
−4		708,000+86,000
−62,000		47,000+2,000
−1,250		O3–4V((f*))163,00014.65±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
W49-5W4964±8661,000+171,000
−136,000		42,700+2,000
−1,900		O3–O5V36,200evolutionSIMBAD[38][39]
ST5-71NGC 207463718,00045,400O5III160,00013.266±0.0201evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
VFTS 259Tarantula Nebula62.6+7.8
−8.6		1,000,000+259,000
−206,000		36,800+500
−520		O6Iaf164,00013.65evolutionSIMBAD[16][10]
Mc30-6a AMercer 30621,349,00029,900Ofpe/WN940,000evolutionSIMBAD[42][g][e]
AB9DEM S80621,122,000100,000WN3ha197,00015.26±0.13spectroscopySIMBAD[64][49][m]
LH 41-1017NGC 191062787,00042,700B1160,00012.266±0.0101evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
Brey 32 BNGC 196662718,00043,600O6.5V165,00012.317±0.02
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[26][24]
HD 93160Trumpler 1462718,00042,700O6III8,0007.60evolutionSIMBAD[44][14]
HSH95-35R13662+4
−3		661,000+64,000
−44,000		47,500+1,500
−1,000		O3V163,00014.32±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]
VFTS 664NGC 207062525,00039,800O7II(f)164,00013.937±0.0591mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][18]
HD 229196Cygnus OB961.640,862O55,0008.59evolutionSIMBAD[78][45]
HD 5980 ANGC 34661±102,239,000+580,000
−460,000		45,000±5,000WN6h200,00011.31±0.08
combined		binarySIMBAD[74][75]
WR 102hbQuintuplet cluster612,630,00025,100WN9h26,000evolutionSIMBAD[80][81]
VFTS 267Tarantula Nebula61+3
−2		813,000+78,000
−72,000		42,500±1,250O3.5III(f*)164,00013.49evolutionSIMBAD[76]
LH 41-18NGC 191061787,00038,500O8.5V((f))160,00012.586±0.0101evolutionSIMBAD[26][18]
AB8 BNGC 60261+14
−25		708,000+183,000
−146,000		45,000±5,000O4V197,00012.90
combined		binarySIMBAD[74][82]
Mc30-9 AMercer 3061676,00034,500O6-7I-III40,000evolutionSIMBAD[42][g][e]
ST5-25NGC 207461545,00048,600O4V160,00013.551±0.109spectroscopySIMBAD[26][28]
VFTS 422NGC 207061501,00039,800O4III(f)164,00015.14mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
Sk -67° 166GKK-A14460.68832,00041,809O4If+160,00012.22±0.03spectroscopySIMBAD[55][18][n]
Sk -65° 47NGC 192360.68832,00041,809O4If160,00012.466±0.1521spectroscopySIMBAD[55][18]
Mc30-7 AMercer 30601,738,00041,400WN640,000evolutionSIMBAD[42][g][e]
R134NGC 2070601,585,00039,800WN6(h)164,00012.75mass-luminosity relationSIMBAD[11][10]
BAT99-96NGC 207060.0+9.2
−7.7		1,349,000+349,000
−277,000		41,690±1,500WN8(h)164,00013.76evolutionSIMBAD[16]
Arches-F2 BArches Cluster60±81,349,000+165,000
−147,000		33,800+2,000
−1,000		O5–6Ia+25,000eclipsing binarySIMBAD[59]
HSH95-55R13660+6
−5		589,000+119,000
−52,000		47,500+3,000
−1,500		O2V((f*))z163,00014.74±0.01evolutionSIMBAD[7][10][8]

A few notable large stars with masses less than 60 M☉ are shown in the table below for the purpose of comparison, ending with theSun, which isvery close, but would otherwise be too small to be included in the list. At present, all the listed stars are naked-eye visible and relatively nearby.

Star nameLocationMass
(M☉,Sun = 1)		Eff. temp.
(K)		Approx. dist.
(ly)		Appt. vis. mag.Mass est.methodLinkRef.
λ CepheiRunaway star fromCepheus OB351.436,0003,1005.05spectroscopySIMBAD[77][14]
τ Canis Majoris AaNGC 23625032,0005,1204.89evolutionSIMBAD[83][14]
θ Muscae AbCentaurus OB14433,0007,4005.53
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[84][14]
θ2 Orionis AOrion OB1 ofOrion complex3934,9001,5005.02evolutionSIMBAD[85][86]
α CamelopardalisRunaway star fromNGC 150237.629,0006,0004.29evolutionSIMBAD[87][14]
P CygniIC 4996 ofCygnus OB13718,7005,1004.82spectroscopySIMBAD[88][14][o]
ζ1 ScorpiiNGC 6231 ofScorpius OB136 - 5317,2008,2104.705spectroscopySIMBAD[89][90]
ζ Orionis AaAlnitak inOrion OB1 ofOrion complex3329,5001,2602.08evolutionSIMBAD[91]
θ1 Orionis C1Trapezium Cluster ofOrion complex3339,0001,3405.13
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[92][14]
κ CassiopeiaeCassiopeia OB143323,5004,0004.16evolutionSIMBAD[93][14]
μ NormaeNGC 61693328,0003,2604.91spectroscopySIMBAD[94][14]
η Carinae BTrumpler 16 ofCarina Nebula3037,2007,5004.3
combined		binarySIMBAD[95][96]
γ2 Velorum BVela OB228.535,0001,2301.83
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[97][14]
Alnilamε Orionis inOrion OB1 ofOrion complex28.4±2.025,0001,2501.69spectroscopy + interferometrySIMBAD[98][14]
Meissa AInCollinder 69 ofOrion complex27.937,7001,3003.54spectroscopySIMBAD[94][99]
ξ PerseiMenkib inCalifornia Nebula ofPerseus OB226.135,0001,2004.04evolutionSIMBAD[87][14]
ζ Puppis Naos inVela R2 ofVela Molecular Ridge25.3±5.340,0001,0802.25empiricalSIMBAD[100][14][p]
WR 79aNGC 6231 ofScorpius OB124.435,0005,6005.77spectroscopySIMBAD[94][14]
Mintaka Aa1InOrion OB1 ofOrion complex2429,5001,2002.5
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[101][102]
ι Orionis Aa1 Hatysa inNGC 1980 ofOrion complex23.132,5001,3402.77
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[103][104]
κ CrucisJewel Box Cluster ofCentaurus OB12316,3007,5005.98evolutionSIMBAD[105][75]
WR 78NGC 6231 ofScorpius OB12250,1004,1006.48spectroscopySIMBAD[31][32]
ο2 Canis MajorisField star21.415,5002,8003.043evolutionSIMBAD[94][14]
Rigel AInOrion OB1 ofOrion complex2112,1008600.13evolutionSIMBAD[106][14]
ζ OphiuchiUpper Scorpius subgroup ofScorpius OB220.234,0003702.569evolutionSIMBAD[87][14]
υ OrionisOrion OB1 ofOrion complex2033,4002,9004.618evolutionSIMBAD[107][108]
σ Orionis AaOrion OB1 ofOrion complex1835,0001,2604.07
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[109][110]
μ ColumbaeRunaway star fromTrapezium Cluster1633,0001,3005.18spectroscopySIMBAD[111][14]
SaiphInOrion OB1 ofOrion complex15.526,5006502.09evolutionSIMBAD[112][14]
σ CygniCygnus OB41510,8003,2604.233evolutionSIMBAD[113][114]
θ Carinae AIC 2602 ofScorpius OB214.931,0004602.76
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[94][115]
θ2 Orionis BOrion OB1 ofOrion complex14.829,3001,5006.38spectroscopySIMBAD[116]
ζ PerseiPerseus OB214.520,8007502.86evolutionSIMBAD[112][14]
σ Orionis BOrion OB1 ofOrion complex1431,0001,2604.07
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[109][110]
β Canis MajorisMirzam inLocal Bubble ofScorpius OB213.523,2004901.985evolutionSIMBAD[117][118]
ε Persei Aα Persei Cluster13.526,5006402.88
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[119][120]
ι Orionis Aa2NGC 1980 ofOrion complex13.127,0001,3402.77
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[103][104]
δ Scorpii A Dschubba inUpper Scorpius subgroup ofScorpius OB21327,4004402.307
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[121][122]
σ Orionis AbOrion OB1 ofOrion complex1329,0001,2604.07
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[109][110]
θ Muscae Aa WR 48 inCentaurus OB111.583,0007,4005.53
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[123][14]
γ2 Velorum AWR 11 inVela OB2957,0001,2301.83
combined		spectroscopySIMBAD[97][14]
ρ Ophiuchi Aρ Ophiuchi cloud complex ofScorpius OB28.722,0003604.63
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[94][14]
BellatrixIn Bellatrix Cluster ofOrion complex7.721,8002501.64evolutionSIMBAD[124][14]
Antares BLoop I Bubble ofScorpius OB27.218,5005505.5evolutionSIMBAD[125][99]
λ Tauri APisces-Eridanus stellar stream7.1818,7004803.47
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[126][127]
δ Perseiα Persei Cluster714,9005203.01evolutionSIMBAD[94][115]
ψ Perseiα Persei Cluster6.216,0005804.31evolutionSIMBAD[94][14]
α Pavonis Aa Peacock inTucana-Horologium association5.9117,7001801.94evolutionSIMBAD[128][104]
AlcyoneInPleiades5.912,3004402.87
combined		evolutionSIMBAD[129][14]
γ Canis MajorisMuliphein inCollinder 1215.613,6004404.1evolutionSIMBAD[94][130]
η Canis MajorisAludra inCollinder 1215.5 or 9.515,0002,0002.45SED modelling / spectroscopySIMBAD[131][14]
ο VelorumIC 2391 ofScorpius OB25.516,2004903.6evolutionSIMBAD[132][115]
ο AquariiPisces-Eridanus stellar stream4.213,5004404.71evolutionSIMBAD[133][134]
ν FornacisPisces-Eridanus stellar stream3.6513,4003704.69evolutionSIMBAD[135][14]
φ EridaniTucana-Horologium association3.5513,7001503.55evolutionSIMBAD[128][136]
η Chamaeleontisη Chamaeleontis moving group ofScorpius OB23.212,5003105.453evolutionSIMBAD[137][75]
ε Chamaeleontisε Chamaeleontis moving group ofScorpius OB22.8710,9003604.91evolutionSIMBAD[138][115]
τ1 AquariiPisces-Eridanus stellar stream2.6810,6003205.66evolutionSIMBAD[139][140]
ε HydriTucana-Horologium association2.6411,0001504.12evolutionSIMBAD[139][141]
β1 TucanaeTucana-Horologium association2.510,6001404.37evolutionSIMBAD[94][99]
SunSolar System15,7720.0000158−26.744standardIAU[142][143][144]
  1. ^For some methods, for any one temperature or brightness, different chemical composition indicates a different estimate for stellar mass.
  2. ^For a binary star, it is possible to measure the individual masses of the two stars by studying their orbital motions, usingKepler's laws of planetary motion.
  3. ^Thesuperwinds from massive stars are similar to thesuperwinds generated byasymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars –red giants – that formplanetary nebulae. These stars' later remnants become the (technically non-stellar)white dwarf cores of planetary nebulae.
  4. ^For examples of stellar debris seehypernovae andsupernova remnant.
  5. ^abcdefghiThis is a binary system but the secondary is much less massive than the primary.
  6. ^This unusual measurement was made by assuming the star was ejected from a three-body encounter in NGC 3603. This assumption also means that the current star is the result of a merger between two original close binary components. The mass is consistent with evolutionary mass for a star with the observed parameters.
  7. ^abcdefMercer 30 is an open cluster in Dragonfish Nebula.
  8. ^BSDL 1830 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  9. ^N64 is an emission nebula in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  10. ^BSDL 2527 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  11. ^DEM S10 is a H II region in Small Magellanic Cloud.
  12. ^N135 is an emission nebula in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  13. ^DEM S80 is a H II region in Small Magellanic Cloud.
  14. ^GKK-A144 is a stellar association in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  15. ^IC 4996 is an open cluster in Cygnus OB1.
  16. ^Vela R2 is a OB association in Vela Molecular Ridge.

Black holes

[edit]
Main articles:Black hole,List of black holes, andList of most massive black holes

Black holes are the end point ofthe evolution of massive stars.[A] Technically they are not stars, as they no longer generate heat and light via nuclear fusion in their cores. Someblack holes may have cosmological origins, and would then never have been stars. This is thought to be especially likely in the cases of themost massive black holes.

See also

[edit]

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^A very few low / no metallicity stars (populations II andIII) between 140–250 M☉ end their lives by atype II-P supernova explosion, which is powerful enough to blow (almost) all matter away from the vicinity of the star, so that not enough material remains to create either a black hole, or a neutron star, or a white dwarf: There is no central remnant; all that remains is an expanding shell of shocked gas from the SN explosion colliding with previously quiescent material ejected before thecore collapse explosion.

References

[edit]
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