This is a list of thelongest-living biological organisms: the individuals orclones of a species with the longest naturalmaximum life spans. For a given species, such a designation may include:
The oldest known individual(s) that are currently alive, with verified ages.
Verified individual record holders, such as the longest-lived human,Jeanne Calment, or the longest-lived domestic cat,Creme Puff.
The definition of "longest-living" used in this article considers only the observed or estimated length of an individual organism's natural lifespan – that is, the duration of time between itsbirth orconception (or the earliest emergence of its identity as an individual organism) and itsdeath – and does not consider other conceivable interpretations of "longest-living", such as the length of time between the earliest appearance of a species in the fossil record and the present day (the historical "age" of the species as a whole) or the time between a species' firstspeciation and itsextinction (thephylogenetic "lifespan" of the species). This list includes long-lived organisms that are currently still alive as well as those that have already died.
Determining the length of an organism's natural lifespan is complicated by many problems of definition and interpretation, as well as by practical difficulties in reliably measuring age, particularly for extremely old organisms and for those that reproduce byasexual reproduction orcloning. In many cases the ages listed below are estimates based on observed present-day growth rates, which may differ significantly from the growth rates experienced thousands of years ago. Identifying the longest-living organisms also depends on defining what constitutes an "individual" organism, which can be problematic, since many asexual organisms and clonal colonies defy one or both of the traditional colloquial definitions of individuality (having a distinct genotype, and having an independent, physically separate body). Additionally, some organisms maintain the capability to reproduce through very long periods of metabolicdormancy, during which they may not be considered "alive" by certain definitions but nonetheless can resume normal metabolism afterward; it is unclear whether the dormant periods should be counted as part of the organism's lifespan.
If themortality rate of a species does not increase after maturity, the species does not age and is said to bebiologically immortal. There are numerous plants and animals for which the mortality rate has been observed to actually decrease with age, for all or part of the life cycle.[1] Specimens of the cnidarian genusHydra were observed for four years without any increase in mortality rate.[2] If the mortality rate remains constant, the rate determines the mean lifespan. The lifespan may be long or short, though the species technically does not "age" in the biological sense.
Individuals of other species have been observed to regress to a larval state and regrow into adults multiple times. Thehydrozoan speciesTurritopsis dohrnii (formerlyTurritopsis nutricula) is capable of cycling from a mature adult stage to an immaturepolyp stage and back again. This means no natural limit to its lifespan is known.[3] No single specimen has been observed for any extended period, however, and estimating the age of a specimen is not possible by any known means. At least one other hydrozoan (Laodicea undulata[4]), onescyphozoan (Aurelia sp. 1[5]) and onetentaculata (Mnemiopsis leiydi[6][7]) can also revert from a medusa stage into a polyp stage.
Similarly, the larvae ofskin beetles undergo a degree of "reversed development" when starved, and later grow back to the previously attained level of maturity. This cycle can be repeated many times. However, repeated cycles result in physiological deterioration, suggesting that these beetle larvae still age.[8]
If the definition of lifespan does not exclude time spent in metabolically inactive states, many organisms may be said to have lifespans that are millions of years in length. Various claims have been made about revivingbacterial spores to active metabolism after millions of years of dormancy. Spores preserved inamber have been revived after 40 million years,[9] and spores from salt deposits in theSalado Formation ofNew Mexico have been revived after 250 million years, making these bacteria by far the longest-living organisms ever recorded.[10] Similarly, in May 2022 prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms were found in crystals ofhalite; these could be over 800 million years old but it remains uncertain if they are alive or if they could be revived.[11][12] In a related find, a scientist was able to coax 34,000-year-old salt-captured bacteria to reproduce. These results were subsequently duplicated independently.[13]
In July 2018, scientists from four Russian institutions collaborating withPrinceton University reported that they had analyzed about 300 prehistoricnematode worms recovered frompermafrost above the Arctic Circle in theSakha Republic, and that after being thawed, two of the nematodes revived and began moving and eating. One found in aPleistocene squirrel burrow in theDuvanny Yar outcrop on theKolyma River was believed to be about 32,000 years old, while the other, recovered in 2015 near theAlazeya River, was dated at approximately 30,000–40,000 years old. These nematodes were believed to be the oldest living non-clonal multicellular organisms on Earth.[14][15] In 2021, biologists reported the restoration ofbdelloid rotifers frozen for 24,000 years in theSiberianpermafrost.[16][17] In 2023, it was reported that nematodes of the previously undescribedPanagrolaimus kolymaensis were revived after 46,000 years incryptobiosis.[18]
Like bacterial spores, plant seeds are often capable ofgerminating after very long periods of metabolic inactivity. A seed from the previously extinctJudean date palm was revived and managed to sprout after nearly 2,000 years. Named "Methuselah", it is currently growing atKibbutz Ketura, Israel.[19] Similarly, the flowering plantSilene stenophylla was grown from frozen fruit found in an ancient squirrel's cache. The germinated plants bore viable seeds. The fruit was dated at 31,800 ± 300 years old.[20] In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), dated at roughly 1,300 ± 270 years old, was successfully germinated.[21][22] In 2024, a never-before-seen species ofCommiphora was grown from a successfully germinated seed that is estimated to be 1,000 years old.[23]
Someendoliths have extremely long lives. In August 2013, researchers reported evidence of endoliths in the ocean floor, perhaps millions of years old, with a generation time of 10,000 years.[28] These are slowly metabolizing and not in a dormant state. SomeActinomycetota found inSiberia are estimated to be half a million years old.[29][30][31]In July 2020,marine biologists reported thataerobicmicroorganisms (mainly), in "quasi-suspended animation", were found inorganically poor sediments 68.9 metres (226 feet) below theseafloor in theSouth Pacific Gyre (SPG) ("the deadest spot in the ocean"). The sediments had been dated by previous research using cobalt-based techniques to 4.3 to 101.5 million years old, which would make them the longest-living life forms ever found,[32][33] yet in October 2024, scientists reported aerobic microorganisms in a two billion-year-old rock drilled from 15 meters underground within a formation known as theBushveld Igneous Complex in northeastern South Africa, though the age of the microorganisms is unknown.[34][35]
Pando is a clonal colony ofquaking aspens that is several thousand years old.
As with all long-lived plant and fungal species, no individual part of aclonal colony isalive (in the sense of activemetabolism) for more than a very small fraction of the life of the entire colony. Some clonal colonies may be fully connected via theirroot systems, while most are not interconnected but are nonetheless genetically identical clones that populated an area throughvegetative reproduction. Ages for clonal colonies are estimates, often based on current growth rates.[36]
A huge colony of the sea grassPosidonia oceanica in theMediterranean Sea nearIbiza, Spain, is estimated to be between 12,000 and 200,000 years old. The maximum age is theoretical, as the region it now occupies was dry land at some point between 10,000 and 80,000 years ago.[37][38][39]
The sole surviving clonal colony of the shrubLomatia tasmanica inTasmania is estimated to be at least 43,600 years old.[40]
TheJurupa Oak colony inRiverside County,California, United States, is estimated to be at least 13,000 years old. Other estimates place it at 5,000 to 30,000 years old.[41]
King Clone is an individual creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in theMojave Desert of southern California, United States, estimated at 11,700 years old.[44] Another creosote bush has been said to be 12,150 years old, but this is as yet unconfirmed.
AHuon pine colony onMount Read, Tasmania, is estimated at 10,000 years old, with individual specimens living over 3,000 years.[45]
Old Tjikko, aNorway spruce tree in the county ofDalarna,Sweden, is living on top of roots that have beenradiocarbon-dated to 9,550 years old. The tree is part of a clonal colony that was established at the end of the last ice age. Discovered by Professor Leif Kullman ofUmeå University, Old Tjikko is small, only 5 m (16 ft) in height.[46][47][48][49]
Pando is a clonal colony ofPopulus tremuloides (quaking aspen) trees in south-centralUtah, United States, that is estimated to be several thousand years old, possibly as much as 14,000 years.[50] Unlike many other clonal "colonies", Pando's above-ground tree trunks remain connected to each other by a single massive subterranean root system.
"Humongous Fungus", an individual of the clonal subterranean fungal speciesArmillaria solidipes in Oregon'sMalheur National Forest, is thought to be between 2,000 and 8,500 years old.[51][52] Apart from its extreme age, it is also thought to be the world'slargest organism by area, at 2,384 acres (965 hectares).
A specimen ofFitzroya cupressoides inChile was measured by ring count as3,654 years old, meaning this species has the second-oldest verified age of any non-clonal tree species.[56][57]
APanke baobab (Adansonia digitata) inZimbabwe was some 2,450 years old when it died in 2011, making it the oldestangiosperm ever documented, and two other trees of the same species – Dorslandboom inNamibia and Glencoe inSouth Africa – were estimated to be approximately 2,000 years old.[60]
TheFortingall Yew, an ancient yew (Taxus baccata) in the churchyard of the village of Fortingall inPerthshire,Scotland, is one of the oldest known individual trees in Europe. Various estimates have put its age between 2,000 and 5,000 years, although it is now believed to be at the lower end of this range.
Tāne Mahuta, akauri tree (Agathis australis) in New Zealand, is believed to be between 1,250 and 2,500 years old. It is the oldest and largest standing kauri tree at present.
Welwitschia is amonotypic genus ofgymnosperm plant, composed solely of the distinctWelwitschia mirabilis. The plant is considered a living fossil. Radiocarbon dating has confirmed that many individuals have lived longer than 1,000 years, and some are suspected to be older than 2,000 years.[citation needed]
Glass sponges found in theEast China Sea andSouthern Ocean have been estimated to be more than 10,000 years old. Although this may be an overestimate, this is likely the longest lived animal on Earth.[70][71][72]
Specimens of theblack coral genusLeiopathes, such asLeiopathes glaberrima, are among the oldest continuously living organisms on the planet: around 4,265 years old.[73]
The giant barrel spongeXestospongia muta is one of the longest-lived animals, with the largest specimens in the Caribbean estimated to be more than 2,300 years old.[74]
The black coralAntipatharia in the Gulf of Mexico may live more than 2,000 years.[75]
The Antarctic spongeCinachyra antarctica has an extremely slow growth rate in the low temperatures of theSouthern Ocean. One specimen has been estimated to be 1,550 years old.[76]
A specimen, "Ming" of the Icelandic cyprineArctica islandica (also known as an ocean quahog), amollusk, was found to have lived 507 years.[77] Another specimen had a recorded lifespan of 374 years.[78]
The tubewormEscarpia laminata that lives in deep seacold seeps regularly reaches the age of between 100 and 200 years, with some individuals determined to be more than 300 years old. Some may live for over 1,000 years.[79][80]
Greenland sharks, which may live upwards of 500 years, are the longest living vertebrates
TheGreenland shark had been estimated to live to about 200 years, but a study published in 2016 found that a 5.02 m (16.5 ft) specimen was between 272 and 512 years old.[81][82] That makes the Greenland shark the longest-lived vertebrate.[83]
Many sub-families of the marine fishOreosomatidae, including theAllocyttus,Neocyttus, andPseudocyttus (collectively referred to as the Oreos) have been reported to live up to 170 years, based on otolith-increment estimates and radiometric dating.[90][91][92]
A Swedish man claimed that aEuropean eel namedÅle was 155 years old when it died in 2014. If correct, it would have been the world's oldest, having been hatched in 1859.[96]
Orange roughy, also known as deep sea perch, can live up to 149 years.[97]
The bigmouth buffalo (Ictiobus cyprinellus), a freshwater fish in the familyCatostomidae, has a maximum longevity of at least 127 years based onotolith annulus counts and bomb radiocarbon dating.[99][100]
In 2012, asturgeon estimated to be 125 years old was caught in a river inWisconsin.[101]
Thegreat white shark is estimated to live for 70+ years, making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fishes currently known.[103]
Anorca of the Southern Resident population identified as J2 orGranny was estimated by some researchers to have been approximately 105 years old at her death in 2017; however, other dating methods estimated her age as 65–80.[104][105]
Agoldfish named Tish lived for 43 years after being won at a fairground in 1956.[106]
A koi fish namedHanako reportedly died at 226 years old in 1977, making her the longest-lived koi fish ever recorded.[107] However, there is uncertainty as to the veracity of her longevity, withSnopes reporting that no conclusive evidence of her age could be found.[108]
A lungfish namedMethuselah was determined to be between 92 and 101 years old in 2023, making her the oldest living fish in captivity at the time.[109]
Jeanne Calment, the oldest human in history for which there is reliable documentation, lived to be 122
Humans are among the longest living land mammals.[110]
Jeanne Calment, a French woman, lived to the age of 122 years and 164 days, making her the oldest fully documented human who has ever lived. She died on August 4, 1997.[111]
Jiroemon Kimura, a Japanese man, died on 12 June 2013 at the age of 116 years and 54 days. He holds the record for the oldest ever male human.
The oldest known person alive today isEthel Caterham, a British woman, at age 116 years, 180 days (born 21 August 1909).
These are single exceptional examples; for a broader view, seelife expectancy.
Jonathan, aSeychelles giant tortoise living on the island ofSaint Helena, is reported to be at least193 years old, hence the oldest currently living terrestrial animal. If Adwaita's claim is not true, Jonathan might be the oldest known terrestrial animal to have ever existed.[113]
Tu'i Malila, aradiated tortoise, died at the age of 188 in May 1966, at the time the oldest verified vertebrate.[114] This tortoise was hatched in 1777.
The oldest known bird in the world was an Australiansulphur-crested cockatoo calledCocky Bennett, who lived to 120.[117] He could recall phrases such as "one feather more and I'll fly" and "one at a time, gentlemen, please". He lived from 1796 to 1916 and traveled the world with various owners.
Thetuatara, a lizard-like reptile native toNew Zealand, can live well over 100 years.Henry, a tuatara at the Southland Museum in New Zealand, mated for the first time at the estimated age of 111 years in 2009 with an 80-year-old female and fathered 11 baby tuatara.[118]
Dakshayani, a female Asian elephant, initially owned by theTravancore royal family and later by theTravancore Devaswom Board, was 88 or 89 years old when she died on February 5, 2019.[119] She is believed to be the oldest elephant in captivity in Asia and was nicknamedGaja Muthassi (grandmother of elephants).
Lin Wang, anAsian elephant, was the oldest elephant in theTaipei Zoo. He was born on January 18, 1917, and died on February 26, 2003, at 86 years,[120] surpassing the previous record of 84. Normally, elephants live up to 50 years, while their maximum lifespan is generally estimated at 70.
Henry, aNile crocodile currently living in the Crocworld Conservation Centre ofScottburgh,South Africa is reported to be 123–124 years old, making him the oldest crocodile in captivity. He is also notable for fathering 10,000 offspring with 6 different mates and for meeting TV host,Robert Alleva.[122][123]
Cookie (June 30, 1933 – August 27, 2016), an Australian-bornMajor Mitchell's cockatoo atBrookfield Zoo, Illinois, was the oldest member of his species in captivity, and died in August 2016 at a verified age of 83.[125]
Fatou, a gorilla at theBerlin Zoo is the oldest gorilla ever at the age of 68.[129]
A femaleLaysan albatross namedWisdom successfully laid an egg atMidway Atoll in December 2016, at the age of 66. As of 2017, she is the oldest known wild bird in the world.[130]
The oldest livinghorse on record,Ol' Billy, was allegedly born in the year 1760 in London, England. Bill died in 1822 at the age of 62. Henry Harrison, a resident of London during the time, had also allegedly known Ol' Billy for 59 years until Bill's death.[132]
Rod, an Egyptian vulture who lived at the Jurong Bird Park from 1971 to his death in 2022. Estimated to be 60 prior to hiseuthanasia, he may have been the oldest known individual of his species.[133]
The oldestbear on record was Andreas, aEuropean brown bear, living in theARCTUROS bear sanctuary in northernGreece.[134] He was at least 50 years old at the time of his death.
A wild-bornblack rhino named Elly was the oldest in North America at an estimated 45 years of age, and resided in California'sSan Francisco Zoo from April 1974 until passing in May 2017.[136]
The oldestgoat was McGinty who lived to the age of 22 years and 5 months until her death in November 2003 onHayling Island,UK.[143]
A wildrabbit named Flopsy was caught on August 6, 1964, and died 18 years and 10 months later inTasmania, Australia[143]
Abearded dragon owned by Nik Vernon was 16 years 129 days old when he died on December 2, 2013.[144]
A mouse named Patrick Stewart (in tribute tothe actor) has been verified by Guinness World Records as the oldest living mouse in human care as well as the oldest mouse ever, aged 9 years 210 days as of 9 February 2023.[145]
The oldest gerbil was aMongolian gerbil named Sahara, she was born in May 1973 and died on 4 October 1981 aged 8 years and 4 months.[146]
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