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List of largest volcanic eruptions

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A tower of grey ash erupts above a mountain
The1991 eruption ofMount Pinatubo, the largest eruption since 1912, is dwarfed by the eruptions in this list.

In avolcanic eruption,lava,volcanic bombs,ash, and various gases are expelled from avolcanic vent andfissure. While many eruptions only pose dangers to the immediately surrounding area,Earth's largest eruptions can have a major regional or even global impact, with some affecting the climate and contributing tomass extinctions.[1][2] Volcanic eruptions can generally be characterized as eitherexplosive eruptions, sudden ejections of rock and ash, oreffusive eruptions, relatively gentle outpourings of lava.[3] A separate list is given below for each type.

There have probably been many such eruptions duringEarth's history beyond those shown in these lists. Howevererosion andplate tectonics have taken their toll, and many eruptions have not left enough evidence for geologists to establish their size. Even for the eruptions listed here, estimates of the volume erupted can be subject to considerable uncertainty.[4]

Explosive eruptions

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Further information:Supervolcano § Massive explosive eruptions

Inexplosive eruptions, the eruption ofmagma is driven by the rapid release of pressure, often involving the explosion of gas previously dissolved within the material. The most famous and destructive historical eruptions are mainly of this type. An eruptive phase can consist of a single eruption, or a sequence of several eruptions spread over several days, weeks or months. Explosive eruptions usually involve thick, highlyviscous,silicic orfelsic magma, high involatiles likewater vapor andcarbon dioxide.Pyroclastic materials are the primary product, typically in the form oftuff. Eruptions the size of that atLake Toba 74,000 years ago, at least 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi), or the Yellowstone eruption 640,000 years ago, around 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi), occur worldwide every 50,000 to 100,000 years.[1][n 1]

Volcano—eruption[5]Age (millions of years)[n 2]LocationVolume (km3)[n 3]NotesRef.
Guarapuava —Tamarana—Sarusas132 Paraná and Etendeka traps8,600The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found. Additionally, the Sarusas quartz latite may have been erupted by multiple eruptions.[4][4]
Santa Maria—Fria~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps7,800The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][4]
Lake Toba Caldera—Youngest Toba Tuff0.073Sunda Arc, Indonesia2,000–13,200Largest known eruption on earth in at least the last million years with most estimates placing it at 2800 cubic kilometers, possibly responsible for apopulation bottleneck of the human species (seeToba catastrophe theory)[8][9][10]

[11][12][13]

Guarapuava —Ventura~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps7,600The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][4]
Flat Landing Brook Eruption466-465 Flat Landing Brook Formation2,000–12,000One of the largest and oldest supereruptions. Existence as a single eruption is controversial. Possibly a multiple 2,000+ km3 event under a million years.[14][15]
Sam Ignimbrite and Green Tuff29.5 Yemen6,797–6,803Volume includes 5550 km3 of distal tuffs. This estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3.[16]
Goboboseb–Messum volcanic centre—Springbok quartz latite unit132 Paraná and Etendeka traps, Brazil and Namibia6,340The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][17]
Wah Wah Springs Tuff30.06 Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex5,500–5,900The largest of the Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex, and includes flows over 4,000 meters thick at the most.[18][10]
Caxias do Sul—Grootberg~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps5,650The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][4]
La Garita Caldera—Fish Canyon Tuff27.8 San Juan volcanic field, Colorado5,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in theSan Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma.[19][20]
Lund Tuff29.2 Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex4,400Formed the White Rock Caldera, one of the largest eruptions of the Mid-Tertiary Ignimbrite flareup.[18]
Jacui—Goboboseb II~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps4,350The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][4]
Ourinhos—Khoraseb~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps3,900The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][4]
Jabal Kura'a Ignimbrite29.6 Yemen3,797–3,803Volume estimate is uncertain to a factor of 2 or 3.[16]
Windows Butte tuff31.4 William's Ridge, central Nevada3,500Part of theMid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up[21][22]
Anita Garibaldi—Beacon~132 Paraná and Etendeka traps3,450The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][4]
Oxaya ignimbrites19 Chile3,000Really a regional correlation of manyignimbrites originally thought to be distinct[23]
Gakkel Ridge Caldera1.1 Gakkel Ridge3,000It is the only known supervolcano located directly on themid-ocean ridge.
Grey's Landing Supereruption8.72 Located in southern Idaho>2,800One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot Supereruptions; Largest Yellowstone eruption.[24]
Pacana Caldera—Atana ignimbrite4 Chile>3,500Forms aresurgent caldera.[25]
Mangakino Caldera—Kidnappers ignimbrite1.01 Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand2,760[26]
Iftar Alkalb—Tephra 4 W29.5 Afro-Arabian2,700[4]
Yellowstone Caldera—Huckleberry Ridge Tuff2.059Yellowstone hotspot2,450–2,500One of the largest Yellowstone eruptions on record[27][9]
Nohi Rhyolite—Gero Ash-Flow Sheet70 Honshū, Japan2,200Nohi Rhyolite total volume over 7,000 km3 in 70 to 72 Ma, Gero Ash-Flow Sheet being the largest[28]
Whakamaru0.254Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand2,000Largest in theSouthern Hemisphere in the LateQuaternary[29]
Palmas BRA-21—Wereldsend29.5 Paraná and Etendeka traps1,900The nature of eruption is disputed. Paraná Province suggests an effusive origin from local sources.[6][7] No ashfall deposits have been found, and the erupted volume could be 2-3 times larger than listed if any ashfall deposits are found.[4][4]
Kilgore tuff4.3 NearKilgore, Idaho1,800Last of the eruptions from theHeise volcanic field[30]
McMullen Supereruption8.99 Located in southern Idaho>1,700One of 2 previously unknown Yellowstone hotspot eruptions.[24]
Sana'a Ignimbrite—Tephra 2W6329.5 Afro-Arabian1,600[4]
Deicke and Millbrig454 England, exposed in Northern Europe and Eastern US1,509[n 4]One of the oldest large eruptions preserved[5][31][32]
Blacktail tuff6.5 Blacktail, Idaho1,500First of several eruptions from theHeise volcanic field[30]
Mangakino Caldera—Rocky Hill1 Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,495[26]
Aso Caldera0.087Kyushu, Japan930–1,860Aso-4 ignimbrite[13]
Emory Caldera—Kneeling Nun tuff33 Mogollon-Datil volcanic field1,310[33]
Omine-Odai Caldera—Murou pyroclastic flow13.7 Honshū, Japan1,260A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma.[34]
Timber Mountain tuff11.6 Southwestern Nevada1,200Also includes a 900 cubic km tuff as a second member in the tuff[35]
Paintbrush tuff (Tonopah Spring Member)12.8 Southwestern Nevada1,200Related to a 1000 cubic km tuff (Tiva Canyon Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff[35]
Bachelor—Carpenter Ridge tuff28 San Juan volcanic field1,200Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in theSan Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma[20]
Bursum—Apache Springs Tuff28.5 Mogollon-Datil volcanic field1,200Related to a 1050 cubic km tuff, the Bloodgood Canyon tuff[36]
Taupō Volcano—Oruanui eruption0.027Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,170Most recentVEI 8 eruption[37]
Mangakino Caldera—Ongatiti–Mangatewaiiti1.21 Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand1,150[26]
Huaylillas Ignimbrite15 Bolivia1,100Predates half of the uplift of the centralAndes[38]
Bursum—Bloodgood Canyon Tuff28.5 Mogollon-Datil volcanic field1,050Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff, the Apache Springs tuff[36]
Okueyama Caldera13.7 Kyūshū, Japan1,030A part of the large eruptions that occurred in southwest Japan to 13 to 15 Ma.[34]
Yellowstone Caldera—Lava Creek Tuff0.639Yellowstone hotspot1,000Last large eruption in theYellowstone National Park area estimated energy yield 875,000 megatons of tnt[39][9][10]
Awasa Caldera1.09 Main Ethiopian Rift1,000[40]
Cerro Galán2.2 Catamarca Province, Argentina1,000Elliptical caldera is ~35 km wide[41]
Paintbrush tuff (Tiva Canyon Member)12.7 Southwestern Nevada1,000Related to a 1200 cubic km tuff (Topopah Spring Member) as another member in the Paintbrush tuff[35]
San Juan—Sapinero Mesa Tuff28 San Juan volcanic field1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in theSan Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma[20]
Uncompahgre—Dillon & Sapinero Mesa Tuffs28.1 San Juan volcanic field1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in theSan Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma[20]
Platoro—Chiquito Peak tuff28.2 San Juan volcanic field1,000Part of at least 20 large caldera-forming eruptions in theSan Juan volcanic field and surrounding area that formed around 26 to 35 Ma[20]
Mount Princeton—Wall Mountain tuff35.3 Thirtynine Mile volcanic area, Colorado1,000Helped cause the exceptional preservation atFlorissant Fossil Beds National Monument[42]
Aira Caldera0.03 Kyushu, Japan940–1,040Osumi pumice fall deposit, Ito ignimbrite, and Aira-Tanzawa ash fall deposit[13]

Effusive eruptions

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This list isincomplete; you can help byadding missing items.(September 2015)
A red-hot lava flow streams out of a fuming vent, meandering past the viewer under a low cloudy sky.
Effusive eruption of lava fromKrafla, Iceland

Effusive eruptions involve a relatively gentle, steady outpouring of lava rather than large explosions. They can continue for years or decades, producing extensive fluidmaficlava flows.[43] For example,Kīlauea onHawaiʻi continuously erupted from 1983 to 2018, producing 2.7 km3 (1 cu mi) of lava covering more than 100 km2 (40 sq mi).[44] Despite their ostensibly benign appearance, effusive eruptions can be as dangerous as explosive ones: one of the largest effusive eruptions in history occurred inIceland during the 1783–1784 eruption ofLaki, which produced about 15 km3 (4 cu mi) of lava and killed one fifth of Iceland's population.[43] The ensuing disruptions to the climate may also have killed millions elsewhere.[45] Still larger were the Icelandic eruptions ofKatla (theEldgjá eruption) circa 934, with 18 km3 (4 cu mi) of erupted lava, and theÞjórsárhraun eruption ofBárðarbunga circa 6700 BCE, with 25 km3 (6 cu mi) lava erupted, the latter being the largest effusive eruption in the last 10,000 years.[46] The lava fields of these eruptions measure 565 km2 (Laki), 700 km2 (Eldgjá) and 950 km2 (Þjórsárhraun).

EruptionAge (Millions of years)LocationVolume
(km3)		NotesRefs
Mahabaleshwar–Rajahmundry Traps (Upper)64.8Deccan Traps, India9,300[4]
Wapshilla Ridge flows~15.5Columbia River Basalt Group, United States5,000–10,000Member comprises 8–10 flows with a total volume of ~50,000 km3[47]
McCoy Canyon flow15.6Columbia River Basalt Group, United States4,300[47]
Umtanum flows~15.6Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,750Two flows with a total volume of 5,500 km3[4]
Sand Hollow flow15.3Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,660[4]
Pruitt Draw flow16.5Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,350[47]
Museum flow15.6Columbia River Basalt Group, United States2,350[47]
Moonaree Dacite1591 Gawler Range Volcanics, Australia2,050One of the oldest large eruptions preserved[4]
Rosalia flow14.5Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,900[4]
Joseph Creek flow16.5Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,850[47]
Ginkgo Basalt15.3Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,600[4]
California Creek–Airway Heights flow15.6Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,500[47]
Stember Creek flow15.6Columbia River Basalt Group, United States1,200[47]

Large igneous provinces

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This list isincomplete; you can help byadding missing items.(September 2015)
Main article:Large igneous province
The Siberian Traps underlie much of Russia, from the Lena River west to the Ural Mountains (around 3,000 km), and stretching south from the Arctic coast almost to Lake Baikal (around 2,000 km).
Extent of theSiberian Traps large igneous province (map in German)

Highly active periods of volcanism in what are calledlarge igneous provinces have produced hugeoceanic plateaus andflood basalts in the past. These can comprise hundreds of large eruptions, producing millions of cubic kilometers of lava in total. No large eruptions of flood basalts have occurred in human history, the most recent having occurred over 10 million years ago. They are often associated with breakup ofsupercontinents such asPangea in the geologic record,[48] and may have contributed to a number ofmass extinctions. Most large igneous provinces have either not been studied thoroughly enough to establish the size of their component eruptions, or are not preserved well enough to make this possible. Many of the eruptions listed above thus come from just two large igneous provinces: theParaná and Etendeka traps and theColumbia River Basalt Group. The latter is the most recent large igneous province, and also one of the smallest.[45] A list of large igneous provinces follows to provide some indication of how many large eruptions may be missing from the lists given here.

Igneous provinceAge (Millions of years)LocationVolume (millions of km3)NotesRefs
Ontong Java–Manihiki–Hikurangi Plateau121 Southwest Pacific Ocean59–77[n 5]Largest igneous body on Earth, later split into three widely separated oceanic plateaus, with a fourth component perhaps nowaccreted onto South America. Possibly linked to theLouisville hotspot.[49][50][51]
Kerguelen Plateau–Broken Ridge112 South Indian Ocean,Kerguelen Islands17[n 5]Linked to theKerguelen hotspot. Volume includes Broken Ridge and the Southern and Central Kerguelen Plateau (produced 120–95 Ma), but not the Northern Kerguelen Plateau (produced after 40 Ma).[52][53]
North Atlantic Igneous Province55.5North Atlantic Ocean6.6[n 6]Linked to theIceland hotspot.[5][54]
Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up32.5Southwest United States: mainly in Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico5.5Mostlyandesite torhyolite explosive (.5 million km3) to effusive (5 million km3) eruptions, 25–40 Ma. Includes many volcanic centers, including theSan Juan volcanic field.[55]
Caribbean large igneous province88 Caribbean–Colombian oceanic plateau4Linked to theGalápagos hotspot.[56]
Siberian Traps249.4Siberia, Russia1–4A large outpouring of lava on land, believed to have caused thePermian–Triassic extinction event, the largestmass extinction ever.[57]
Karoo-Ferrar183 Mainly Southern Africa and Antarctica. Also South America, India, Australia and New Zealand2.5Formed asGondwana broke up[58]
Paraná and Etendeka traps133 Brazil/Angola andNamibia2.3Linked to theTristan hotspot[59][60]
Central Atlantic magmatic province200 Laurasia continents2Believed to be the cause of theTriassic–Jurassic extinction event. Formed asPangaea broke up[61]
Deccan Traps66 Deccan Plateau, India1.5A large igneous province of west-centralIndia, believed to have been one of the causes of theCretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Linked to theRéunion hotspot.[62][63]
Emeishan Traps256.5Southwestern China1Possible cause ofCapitanian mass extinction event, later may have contributed to thePermian–Triassic extinction event along withSiberian Traps.[64]
Coppermine River Group1267 Mackenzie Large Igneous Province/Canadian Shield0.65Consists of at least 150 individual flows.[65]
Ethiopia-Yemen Continental Flood Basalts28.5Ethiopia/Yemen/Afar,Arabian-Nubian Shield0.35Associated with silicic, explosive tuffs[66][67]
Columbia River Basalt Group16 Pacific Northwest, United States0.18Well exposed byMissoula Floods in theChanneled Scablands.[68]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Certainfelsic provinces, such as the Chon Aike province in Argentina and the Whitsunday igneous province of Australia, are not included in this list because they are composed of many separate eruptions that have not been distinguished.
  2. ^Dates are an average of the range of dates of volcanics.
  3. ^These volumes are estimated total volumes of tephra ejected. If the available sources only report a dense rock equivalent volume, the number is italicized but not converted into a tephra volume.
  4. ^Also the site of 972 and 943 km3 (233 and 226 cu mi) eruptions.
  5. ^abThis is the volume of crustal thickening, so the figure includes intrusive as well as extrusive deposits.
  6. ^Actually several provinces, ranging in size from 1.5 to 6.6 million km3

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