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List of largest empires

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A map of the British and Mongol empires at their respective greatest extents
TheBritish Empire (red) andMongol Empire (blue) were the largest and second-largest empires in history, respectively. The precise extent of either empire at its greatest territorial expansion is a matter of debate among scholars.

Severalempires inhuman history have been contenders for the largest of all time, depending on definition and mode of measurement. Possible ways of measuring size include area, population, economy, and power. Of these, area is the most commonly used because it has a fairly precise definition and can be feasibly measured with some degree of accuracy.[1] Estonian political scientistRein Taagepera, who published a series of academic articles about the territorial extents of historical empires between 1978 and 1997,[2][3][4][5] defined an empire as "any relatively large sovereign political entity whose components are not sovereign" and its size as the area over which the empire has some undisputed military and taxation prerogatives.[6] The list is not exhaustive as there is a lack of available data for several empires; for this reason and because of the inherent uncertainty in the estimates, no rankings are given.

Largest empires by land area

For context, the land area of the Earth, excluding the continent ofAntarctica, is 134,740,000 km2 (52,023,000 sq mi).[7]

Empires at their greatest extent

The home and colonial areas of the world's empires in 1908, as given byThe Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer

Empire size in this list is defined as the dry land area it controlled at the time, which may differ considerably from the area it claimed. For example: in the year 1800, European powers collectively claimed approximately 20% of the Earth's land surface that they did not effectively control.[8] Where estimates vary, entries are sorted by thelowest estimate. Where more than one entry has the same area, they are listed alphabetically.

EmpireMaximum land area
Million km2Million sq mi% of worldYear
British Empire[a]35.5[9]13.7126.35%1920[9]
Mongol Empire[b]24.0[9][10]9.2717.81%1270[10] or1309[9]
Russian Empire[c]22.8[9][10]8.8016.92%1895[9][10]
Qing dynasty[d]14.7[9][10]5.6810.91%1790[9][10]
Spanish Empire13.7[9]5.2910.17%1810[9]
Second French colonial empire11.5[9]4.448.53%1920[9]
Abbasid Caliphate11.1[9]4.298.24%750[9]
Umayyad Caliphate11.1[9]4.298.24%720[9]
Yuan dynasty11.0[9]4.258.16%1310[9]
Xiongnu Empire9.0[10][11]3.476.68%176 BC[10][11]
Empire of Brazil[e]8.337[12]3.226.19%1889[12]
Empire of Japan7.4[13]–8.512.86–3.285[14]5.49%–6.32%1942[13][14]
Eastern Han dynasty6.5[11]2.514.82%100[11]
Ming dynasty6.5[9][10]2.514.82%1450[9][10]
Rashidun Caliphate6.4[9]2.474.75%655[9]
First Turkic Khaganate6.0[10][11]2.324.45%557[10][11]
Golden Horde Khanate6.0[9][10]2.324.45%1310[9][10]
Western Han dynasty6.0[10][11]2.324.45%50 BC[10][11]
Achaemenid Empire5.5[10][11]2.124.08%500 BC[10][11]
Second Portuguese Empire[e]5.5[9]2.124.08%1820[9]
Tang dynasty5.4[9][10]2.084.01%715[9][10]
Macedonian Empire5.2[10][11]2.013.86%323 BC[10][11]
Ottoman Empire5.2[9][10]2.013.86%1683[9][10]
Northern Yuan dynasty5.0[9]1.933.71%1368[9]
Roman Empire5.0[10][11]1.933.71%117[10][11]
Xin dynasty4.7[11]1.813.49%10[11]
Tibetan Empire4.6[9][10]1.783.41%800[9][10]
Xianbei state4.5[15]1.743.34%200[15]
First Mexican Empire4.429[16]1.713.29%1821[16]
Timurid Empire4.4[9][10]1.703.27%1405[9][10]
Fatimid Caliphate4.1[9][10]1.583.04%969[9][10]
Eastern Turkic Khaganate4.0[11]1.542.97%624[11]
Hunnic Empire4.0[10][11]1.542.97%441[10][11]
Mughal Empire4.0[9][10]1.542.97%1690[9][10]
Great Seljuq Empire3.9[9][10]1.512.89%1080[9][10]
Seleucid Empire3.9[10][11]1.512.89%301 BC[10][11]
Italian Empire3.825[17]1.482.84%1941[17]
Ilkhanate3.75[9][10]1.452.78%1310[9][10]
Dzungar Khanate3.6[15]1.392.67%1650[15]
Chagatai Khanate3.5[9][10]1.352.60%1310[9] or1350[9][10]
Sasanian Empire3.5[10][11]1.352.60%550[10][11]
Western Turkic Khaganate3.5[11]1.352.60%630[11]
WesternXiongnu3.5[11]1.352.60%20[11]
First French colonial empire3.4[9]1.312.52%1670[9]
Ghaznavid Empire3.4[9][10]1.312.52%1029[9][10]
Maurya Empire3.4[11]–5.0[10]1.31–1.932.52%–3.71%261 BC[11] or250 BC[10]
Delhi Sultanate3.2[9][10]1.242.37%1312[9][10]
German colonial empire3.1471.215[18]2.34%1911[18]
Northern Song dynasty3.1[9][10]1.202.30%980[9][10]
Uyghur Khaganate3.1[9][10]1.202.30%800[9][10]
Western Jin dynasty3.1[11]1.202.30%280[11]
Danish Empire3.0[19]1.162.23%1700[19]
Sui dynasty3.0[11]1.162.23%589[11]
Safavid empire2.9[15]1.122.15%1630[15]
Samanid Empire2.85[9][10]1.102.12%928[9][10]
Eastern Jin dynasty2.8[11]1.082.08%347[11]
Median Empire[f]2.8[10][11]1.082.08%585 BC[10][11]
Parthian Empire2.8[10][11]1.082.08%1[10][11]
Rouran Khaganate2.8[10][11]1.082.08%405[10][11]
Byzantine Empire2.7[10]–2.8[11]1.04–1.082.00%–2.08%555[10] or450[11]
Indo-Scythian Kingdom2.6[11]1.001.93%20[11]
Liao dynasty2.6[9][10]1.001.93%947[9][10]
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom2.5[11]0.971.86%184 BC[11]
Later Zhao2.5[11]0.971.86%329[11]
Maratha Confederacy2.5[10]0.971.86%1760[10]
Belgian colonial empire2.366[17]–2.470.91–0.95[21]1.76%–1.83%1941[17] or1939[21]
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)2.3[9][10]0.891.71%1126[9][10]
Khwarazmian Empire2.3[10]–3.6[9]0.89–1.391.71%–2.67%1210[10] or1218[9]
Qin dynasty2.3[11]0.891.71%220 BC[11]
Dutch Empire2.1[15]0.811.56%1938[15]
First French Empire2.1[9]0.811.56%1813[9]
Kievan Rus'2.1[9][10]0.811.56%1000[9][10]
Mamluk Sultanate2.1[9][10]0.811.56%1300[9] or1400[10]
Southern Song dynasty2.1[9]0.811.56%1127[9]
Third Portuguese Empire2.1[9]0.811.56%1900[9]
Almohad Caliphate2.0[10]–2.3[9]0.77–0.891.48%–1.71%1200[10] or1150[9]
Cao Wei2.0[11]0.771.48%263[11]
Former Qin2.0[11]0.771.48%376[11]
Former Zhao2.0[11]0.771.48%316[11]
Ghurid dynasty2.0[15]0.771.48%1200[15]
Inca Empire2.0[9][10]0.771.48%1527[9][10]
Kushan Empire2.0[10]–2.5[11]0.77–0.971.48%–1.86%200[10][11]
Liu Song dynasty2.0[11]0.771.48%450[11]
Northern Wei2.0[11]0.771.48%450[11]
Western Roman Empire2.0[11]0.771.48%395[11]
Ayyubid dynasty1.7[9]–2.0[10]0.66–0.771.26%–1.48%1200[9] or1190[10]
Gupta Empire1.7[11]–3.5[10]0.66–1.351.26%–2.60%440[11] or400[10]
Hephthalite Empire1.7[22]–4.0[11]0.66–1.541.26%–2.97%500[22] or470[11]
Buyid dynasty1.6[9][10]0.621.19%980[9][10]
Eastern Wu1.5[11]0.581.11%221[11]
Northern Qi1.5[11]0.581.11%557[11]
NorthernXiongnu1.5[11]0.581.11%60[11]
Northern Zhou1.5[11]0.581.11%577[11]
Neo-Assyrian Empire1.4[10][23]0.541.04%670 BC[10][23]
EasternMaurya Kingdom1.3[11]0.500.96%210 BC[11]
Liang dynasty1.3[10][11]0.500.96%502,[11]549,[11] or579[10]
Qajar Empire1.290.50[24]0.96%1873[24]
Kingdom of Aksum1.25[10]0.480.93%350[10]
Shang dynasty1.25[10][23]0.480.93%1122 BC[10][23]
Francia1.2[9][10]0.460.89%814[9][10]
Srivijaya1.2[10]0.460.89%1200[10]
Indo-Greek Kingdom1.1[11]0.420.82%150 BC[11]
Mali Empire1.1[9][10]0.420.82%1380[9][10]
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth1.1[9][10]0.420.82%1480[10] or1650[9]
Almoravid dynasty1.0[10]0.390.74%1120[10]
Pushyabhuti dynasty1.0[9][10]0.390.74%625[9] or648[9][10]
Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty1.0[9]0.390.74%860[9]
Holy Roman Empire1.0[9]0.390.74%1050[9]
Khazar Khanate1.0[9]–3.0[10]0.39–1.160.74%–2.23%900[9] or850[10]
Khmer Empire1.0[9][10]0.390.74%1290[9][10]
New Kingdom of Egypt1.0[10][23]0.390.74%1450 BC[23] or1300 BC[10]
Ptolemaic Kingdom1.0[11]0.390.74%301 BC[11]
Qara Khitai1.0[9]–1.5[10]0.39–0.580.74%–1.11%1130[9] or1210[10]
Scythia1.0[22]0.390.74%400 BC[22]
Shu Han1.0[11]0.390.74%221[11]
Tahirid dynasty1.0[9]0.390.74%800[9]
Western Xia1.0[10]0.390.74%1100[10]
Swedish Empire0.99[25]0.380.73%1700[25]
Kingdom of Armenia0.9[26]0.350.67%70 BC[26]
Nazi Germany0.824[17]0.320.61%1941[17]
Akkadian Empire0.8[23]0.310.59%2250 BC[23]
Avar Khaganate0.8[11]0.310.59%600[11]
Chu0.8[11]0.310.59%300 BC[11]
Huns0.8[11]0.310.59%287[11]
Songhai Empire0.8[9]0.310.59%1550[9]
Hyksos0.65[23]0.250.48%1650 BC[23]
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt0.65[23]0.250.48%550 BC[23]
Rozvi Empire0.624[27]0.240.46%1700[27]
Austro-Hungarian Empire0.620.24[28]0.46%1905[28]
Caliphate of Córdoba0.6[9]0.230.45%1000[9]
First Portuguese Empire0.6[9]0.230.45%1580[9]
Visigothic Kingdom0.6[11]0.230.45%580[11]
Zhou dynasty0.55[29]0.210.41%1100 BC[29]
Sikh Empire0.520.20[30]0.39%1839[30]
Emirate of Córdoba0.5[9]0.190.37%756[9]
Kosala0.5[11]0.190.37%543 BC[11]
Lydia0.5[23]0.190.37%585 BC[23]
Magadha0.5[11]0.190.37%510 BC[11]
Middle Kingdom of Egypt0.5[23]0.190.37%1850 BC[23]
Neo-Babylonian Empire0.5[23]0.190.37%562 BC[23]
Satavahana dynasty0.5[11]0.190.37%150[11]
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt0.5[23]0.190.37%715 BC[23]
Western Satraps0.5[11]0.190.37%100[11]
New Hittite Kingdom0.45[23]0.170.33%1250 BC – 1220 BC[23]
Xia dynasty0.45[23]0.170.33%1800 BC[23]
Bulgarian Empire0.4[31][need quotation to verify]0.150.30%850[31][need quotation to verify]
Kingdom of France (Middle Ages)0.4[9]0.150.30%1250[9]
Middle Assyrian Empire0.4[23]0.150.30%1080 BC[23]
Old Kingdom of Egypt0.4[23]0.150.30%2400 BC[23]
Sokoto Caliphate0.4[32]0.150.30%1804[32]
Latin Empire0.35[11]0.140.26%1204[11]
Ancient Carthage0.3[11]0.120.22%220 BC[11]
Indus Valley Civilisation[g]0.3[29]0.120.22%1800 BC[29]
Mitanni0.3[23]0.120.22%1450 BC – 1375 BC[23]
Ashanti Empire0.25[33]0.100.19%1820[33]
First Babylonian Empire0.25[23]0.100.19%1690 BC[23]
Aztec Empire0.22[9]0.080.16%1520[9]
Zulu Empire0.210.08[34]0.16%1822[34]
Elamite Empire0.2[23]0.080.15%1160 BC[23]
Phrygia0.2[23]0.080.15%750 BC[23]
Second Dynasty of Isin0.2[23]0.080.15%1130 BC[23]
Urartu0.2[23]0.080.15%800 BC[23]
Eastern Zhou0.15[23]0.060.11%770 BC[23]
Middle Hittite Kingdom0.15[23]0.060.11%1450 BC[23]
Old Assyrian Empire0.15[23]0.060.11%1730 BC[23]
Old Hittite Empire0.15[23]0.060.11%1530 BC[23]
Oyo Empire0.15[35]0.060.11%1680[35]
Bornu Empire0.130.05[36]0.10%1892[36]
Larsa0.1[23]0.040.07%1750 BC – 1700 BC[23]
Neo-Sumerian Empire0.1[23]0.040.07%2000 BC[23]
Tarascan empire0.075[37]0.030.06%1450[37]
Lagash0.05[29]0.020.04%2400 BC[29]
Sumer0.05[23]0.020.04%2400 BC[23]
  1. ^The largest peak areas of its former colonies following independence wereCanada's 9.98 million km2 (3.85 million sq mi) in 1945, theUnited States' 9.67 million km2 (3.73 million sq mi) in 1899, andAustralia's 7.68 million km2 (2.97 million sq mi) in 1945.[9]
  2. ^The Mongol Empire eventuallyfractured into four separate khanates: theYuan dynasty,Chagatai Khanate,Ilkhanate, andGolden Horde. These are listed separately.
  3. ^Its successor state theUSSR and its successor in turn, theRussian Federation, reached maximum extents of 22.3 million km2 (8.6 million sq mi) in 1945 and 17.1 million km2 (6.6 million sq mi) in 1991, respectively.[9]
  4. ^Its successor state theRepublic of China (1912–1949) and its successor in turn, thePeople's Republic of China (since 1949), reached maximum extents of 7.7 million km2 (3.0 million sq mi) in 1912 and 9.7 million km2 (3.7 million sq mi) in 1950, respectively.[9]
  5. ^abThe reason the Empire of Brazil is listed as having a larger area in 1889 than the Portuguese Empire had in 1820, despiteBrazil having been a Portuguese colony, is that the Portuguese settlers only had effective control over approximately half of Brazil at the time of Brazilian independence in 1822.[9]
  6. ^More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state.[20]
  7. ^The extent to which this constituted a cohesive political entity is uncertain.[29]

Timeline of largest empires to date

The earliest empire which can with certainty be stated to have been larger than all previous empires was that ofUpper and Lower Egypt, which covered ten times the area of the previous largest civilisation around the year 3000 BC.[38]

EmpireLand areaYear
Million km2Million sq mi
Upper and Lower Egypt0.1[23]0.043000 BC[23]
Old Kingdom of Egypt0.25[23]0.102850 BC[23]
0.4[23]0.152400 BC[23]
Akkadian Empire0.65[23]0.252300 BC[23]
0.8[23]0.312250 BC[23]
New Kingdom of Egypt1.0[23]0.391450 BC[23]
Shang dynasty1.25[23]0.481122 BC[23]
Neo-Assyrian Empire1.4[23]0.54670 BC[23]
Median Empire[a]2.8[11]1.08585 BC[11]
Achaemenid Empire3.6[11]1.39539 BC[11]
5.5[11]2.12500 BC[11]
Xiongnu Empire9.0[11]3.47176 BC[11]
Umayyad Caliphate11.1[9]4.29720[9]
Mongol Empire13.5[9]5.211227[9]
24.0[9]9.271309[9]
British Empire24.5[9]9.461880[9]
35.5[9]13.711920[9]
  1. ^More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state.[20] If the Median Empire never surpassed the size of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the latter remained the largest empire the world had seen until the Achaemenid Empire surpassed it.[23][11]

Timeline of largest empires at the time

EmpireLand area during time
as largest empire		Approximate period[29]
Million km2[29]Million sq mi
Upper Egypt0.10.043000 BC
Old Kingdom of Egypt0.25–0.40.10–0.152800 BC – 2400 BC
Akkadian Empire0.2–0.60.08–0.232300 BC – 2200 BC
Indus Valley Civilisation[a]0.150.062100 BC
Middle Kingdom of Egypt0.2–0.50.08–0.192000 BC – 1800 BC
Xia dynasty0.40.151700 BC
Hyksos0.650.251600 BC
New Kingdom of Egypt0.65–1.00.25–0.391500 BC – 1300 BC
Shang dynasty0.9–1.10.35–0.421250 BC – 1150 BC
New Kingdom of Egypt0.5–0.60.19–0.231100 BC – 1050 BC
Zhou dynasty0.35–0.450.14–0.171000 BC – 900 BC
Neo-Assyrian Empire0.4–1.40.15–0.54850 BC – 650 BC
Median Empire[b]3.01.16600 BC
Achaemenid Empire2.5–5.50.97–2.12550 BC – 350 BC
Macedonian Empire5.22.01323 BC
Seleucid Empire4.01.54300 BC
Maurya Empire3.51.35250 BC
Han dynasty2.50.97200 BC
Xiongnu Empire5.72.20150 BC
Han dynasty4.2–6.51.62–2.51100 BC – 200 AD
Roman Empire4.41.70250–350
Sasanian Empire3.51.35400
Hunnic Empire4.01.54450
Sasanian Empire3.51.35500
Göktürk Khaganate3.0–5.21.16–2.01550–600
Rashidun Caliphate5.22.01650
Umayyad Caliphate9.0–11.03.47–4.25700–750
Abbasid Caliphate8.3–11.03.20–4.25750–800
Tibet2.5–4.70.97–1.81850–950
Song dynasty3.01.161000
Seljuk Empire3.0–4.01.16–1.541050–1100
Tibet2.50.971150
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)2.30.891200
Mongol Empire18.0–24.06.95–9.271250–1300
Yuan dynasty11.04.251350
Timurid Empire4.01.541400
Ming dynasty4.7–6.51.81–2.511450–1500
Ottoman Empire4.31.661550
Tsardom of Russia6.0–12.02.32–4.631600–1700
Russian Empire14.0–17.05.41–6.561750–1800
British Empire23.0–34.08.88–13.131850–1925
Soviet Union22.58.691950–1975
  1. ^ The extent to which this constituted a cohesive political entity is uncertain. If the largest empire in the year 2100 BC was not the Indus Valley Civilisation, it was theFirst Intermediate Period of Egypt with an area of 0.1 million km2 (0.04 million sq mi).
  2. ^More recent reassessment of the historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led modern scholars to question previous notions of the extent of the realm of the Medes and even its existence as a unified state.[20] If the largest empire in the year 600 BC was not the Median Empire, it wasLate Egypt with an area of 0.55 million km2 (0.21 million sq mi).

Largest empires by share of world population

The home and colonial populations of the world's empires in 1908, as given byThe Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer

Because of the trend of increasing world population over time, absolute population figures are for some purposes less relevant for comparison between different empires than their respective shares of the world population at the time.[39] For the majority of the time since roughly 400 BC, the two most populous empires' combined share of the world population has been 30–40%. Most of the time, the most populous empire has been located in China.[40]

EmpireEmpire population
as percentage of
world population[41]		Year[41]
Qing dynasty371800
Northern Song dynasty331100
Western Han dynasty321
Mongol Empire311290
Roman Empire30150
Jin dynasty (266–420)28280
Ming dynasty281600
Qin dynasty24220 BC
Mughal Empire241700
Tang dynasty23900
Delhi Sultanate231350
British Empire231938
Empire of Japan201943
Maurya Empire19250 BC
Former Qin19376
Northern Zhou16580
Macedonian Empire15323 BC
Empire of Harsha15647
Gupta Empire13450
Northern Wei13500
Umayyad Caliphate13750
Achaemenid Empire12450 BC
Former Yan12366
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)121200
Nazi Germany121943

See also

References

  1. ^Taagepera, Rein (1978)."Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size"(PDF).Social Science Research.7 (2): 111.doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90007-8.ISSN 0049-089X.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  2. ^Taagepera, Rein (1978)."Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size"(PDF).Social Science Research.7 (2):108–127.doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90007-8.ISSN 0049-089X.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  3. ^Taagepera, Rein (1978)."Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 3000 to 600 B.C."(PDF).Social Science Research.7 (2):180–196.doi:10.1016/0049-089x(78)90010-8.ISSN 0049-089X.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  4. ^Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".Social Science History.3 (3/4):115–138.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR 1170959.
  5. ^Taagepera, Rein (September 1997)."Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"(PDF).International Studies Quarterly.41 (3):475–504.doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053.JSTOR 2600793.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  6. ^Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".Social Science History.3 (3/4): 117.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR 1170959.
  7. ^"World",The World Factbook,Central Intelligence Agency, 18 July 2022,archived from the original on 20 June 2022, retrieved24 July 2022,land: 148.94 million sq km [...] Antarctica 14,200,000 sq km
  8. ^Magdoff, Harry (1979).Imperialism: From the Colonial Age to the Present. NYU Press. p. 29.ISBN 978-0-85345-498-4.Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved19 July 2020.[I]n 1800 Europe and its possessions, including former colonies, claimed title to about 55 percent of the earth's land surface: Europe, North and South America, most of India, and small sections along the coast of Africa. But much of this was merely claimed; effective control existed over a little less than 35 percent, most of which consisted of Europe itself. By 1878—that is, before the next major wave of European acquisitions began—an additional 6,500,000 square miles (16,800,000 square kilometers) were claimed; during this period, control was consolidated over the new claims and over all the territory claimed in 1800. Hence, from 1800 until 1878, actual European rule (including former colonies in North and South America), increased from 35 to 67 percent of the earth's land surface.
  9. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdcecfcgchcicjckclcmcncocpcqcrcsctcucvcwcxcyczdadbdcdddedfdgdhdidjdkdldmdndodpdqdrdsdtdudvdwdxdydzTaagepera, Rein (September 1997)."Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"(PDF).International Studies Quarterly.41 (3):492–502.doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053.JSTOR 2600793.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  10. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdcecfcgchcicjckclcmcncocpcqcrcsctcucvcwcxcyczdadbdcdddedfdgdhdidjdkdldmdndodpTurchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006)."East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"(PDF).Journal of World-Systems Research.12 (2):222–223.ISSN 1076-156X. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  11. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdcecfcgchcicjckclcmcncocpcqcrcsctcucvcwcxcyczdadbdcdddedfdgdhdidjdkdldmdnTaagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.".Social Science History.3 (3/4):121–122,124–129,132–133.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR 1170959.
  12. ^ab"Área Territorial Brasileira".www.ibge.gov.br (in Portuguese).Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics.Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved16 October 2016.A primeira estimativa oficial para a extensão superficial do território brasileiro data de 1889. O valor de 8.337.218 km2 foi obtido a partir de medições e cálculos efetuados sobre as folhas básicas da Carta do Império do Brasil, publicada em 1883. [The first official estimate of the surface area of the Brazilian territory dates from 1889. A value of 8,337,218 km2 was obtained from measurements and calculations made on drafts of the Map of the Empire of Brazil, published in 1883.]
  13. ^abConrad, Sebastian (2014)."The Dialectics of Remembrance: Memories of Empire in Cold War Japan"(PDF).Comparative Studies in Society and History.56 (1): 8.doi:10.1017/S0010417513000601.ISSN 0010-4175.JSTOR 43908281.S2CID 146284542.Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.In 1942, at the moment of its greatest extension, the empire encompassed territories spanning over 7,400,000 square kilometers.
  14. ^abJames, David H. (1 November 2010).The Rise and Fall of the Japanese Empire. Routledge.ISBN 9781136925467.Archived from the original on 6 July 2019. Retrieved11 September 2018.by 1942, this 'Empire' covered about 3,285,000 square miles
  15. ^abcdefghijScheidel, Walter (2020)."The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution". InBang, Peter Fibiger;Bayly, C. A.;Scheidel, Walter (eds.).The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. pp. 92–94.ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.
  16. ^abRodríguez, Jaime; Vincent, Kathryn (1997)."The Colonization and Loss of Texas: A Mexican Perspective".Myths, Misdeeds and Misunderstandings: The Roots of Conflict in US-Mexican Relations (First ed.). Wilmington, DE, USA: Scholarly Resources Inc. p. 47.ISBN 0-8420-2662-2.Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved14 May 2020.When it was founded in 1821, the Mexican Empire extended over 4,429,000 km2 (not including the 445,683 km2 temporarily added by the short-lived union of the Central American provinces).
  17. ^abcdefSoldaten-Atlas (Tornisterschrift des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht, Heft 39).Leipzig:Bibliographisches Institut. 1941. pp. 8, 32.
  18. ^abAshworth, Philip Arthur; and, others (1911)."Germany" . InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 804–828.Area English Sq. m. [...] German Empire: 208,780 Area (estimated) sq. m. [...] Total dependencies: 1,006,412
  19. ^abKorchmina, Elena; Sharp, Paul (June 2020)."Denmark and Russia: What can we learn from the historical comparison of two great Arctic agricultural empires?"(PDF).European Historical Economics Society. p. 3.Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved4 July 2020.Around 1700, the Danish Empire covered around 3 million square kilometers
  20. ^abcWaters, Matthew (2005). Lanfranchi, Giovanni B.;Roaf, Michael;Rollinger, Robert (eds.). "Media and Its Discontents".Journal of the American Oriental Society.125 (4):517–533.ISSN 0003-0279.JSTOR 20064424.
  21. ^abTownsend, Mary Evelyn; Peake, Cyrus Henderson (1941).European Colonial Expansion Since 1871. J.B. Lippincott. p. 19.Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved19 July 2020.
  22. ^abcdTurchin, Peter (2009)."A theory for formation of large empires"(PDF).Journal of Global History.4 (2): 202.doi:10.1017/S174002280900312X.ISSN 1740-0228.S2CID 73597670. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 31 January 2020. Retrieved31 January 2020.
  23. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsTaagepera, Rein (1978)."Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 3000 to 600 B.C."(PDF).Social Science Research.7 (2):182–189.doi:10.1016/0049-089x(78)90010-8.ISSN 0049-089X.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  24. ^abHughes, William (1873).A Class-book of Modern Geography: With Examination Questions. G. Philip & Son. p. 175.Archived from the original on 26 August 2020. Retrieved26 August 2020.In size it is about 500,000 square miles
  25. ^abSundberg, Ulf (2018).Swedish defensive fortress warfare in the Great Northern War 1702–1710(PDF). Åbo: Åbo Akademis förlag. p. 26.ISBN 978-951-765-897-3.OCLC 1113941754. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 3 July 2020.In 1700, the Swedish Empire covered a land area of 990,000 square kilometers and had 2,500,000 inhabitants.
  26. ^abManaseryan, Ruben L.[in Armenian] (2022)."Տիգրան Մեծի անձի և գործունեության գնահատականի շուրջ"(PDF).Vem: 39.doi:10.57192/18291864-2022.3-33. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 10 February 2024.Հայոց արքայի իշխելը 10 միլիոն բնակչություն ունեցող 900.000 կմ² տարածքի վրա
  27. ^abCornell, James (1978).Lost Lands and Forgotten People. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 24.ISBN 978-0-8069-3926-1.Zimbabwe continued to grow, reaching the height of its power in 1700, under the rule of the Rozwi people. When the first Europeans arrived on the African coast, they heard tales of a great stone city, the capital of a vast empire. The tales were true, for the Rozwi controlled 240,000 square miles (624,000 sq km)
  28. ^abBriliant, Oscar; and, others (1911)."Austria-Hungary" . InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 03 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 2–39.It occupies about the sixteenth part of the total area of Europe, with an area (1905) of 239,977 sq. m.
  29. ^abcdefghiTaagepera, Rein (1978)."Size and duration of empires: Systematics of size"(PDF).Social Science Research.7 (2):116–117.doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90007-8.ISSN 0049-089X.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  30. ^abSingh, Amarpal (15 August 2010).The First Anglo-Sikh War. Amberley Publishing Limited.ISBN 978-1-4456-2038-1.By 1839, the year of his death, the Sikh kingdom extended from Tibet and Kashmir to Sind and from the Khyber Pass to the Himalayas in the east. It spanned 600 miles from east to west and 350 miles from north to south, comprising an area of just over 200,000 square miles.
  31. ^abRashev, Rasho (2008).Българската езическа култура VII -IX в./Bulgarian Pagan Culture VII – IX cтр. 38 (in Bulgarian). Класика и стил.ISBN 9789543270392.
  32. ^abWesseling, H. L. (23 October 2015).The European Colonial Empires: 1815-1919. Routledge. p. 93.ISBN 978-1-317-89507-7.Archived from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved3 July 2020.Islam spread quickly in Hausaland, which, after the jihad of 1804, was incorporated into the Sokoto Caliphate, a vast empire of 400,000 square kilometres.
  33. ^abIliffe, John (25 August 1995).Africans: The History of a Continent. Cambridge University Press. p. 143.ISBN 978-0-521-48422-0.At its peak around 1820 the empire embraced over 250,000 square kilometres [...]
  34. ^abGluckman, Max (1960)."The Rise of a Zulu Empire".Scientific American.202 (4): 162.Bibcode:1960SciAm.202d.157G.doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0460-157.ISSN 0036-8733.JSTOR 24940454. Retrieved7 July 2020.By 1822 he had made himself master over 80,000 square miles
  35. ^abThornton, John (28 April 1998).Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800. Cambridge University Press. p. 104.ISBN 978-0-521-62724-5.By 1680, the Oyo Empire (in Nigeria) may have exceeded 150,000 square kilometers, though not by much.
  36. ^abHughes, William;Williams, J. Francon (1892).A Class-book of Modern Geography: With Examination Questions, Notes, & Index. G. Philip & son. p. 281.Archived from the original on 30 May 2021.It has an area of perhaps 50,000 square miles.
  37. ^abBlanford, Adam Jared (2014).Rethinking Tarascan Political and Spatial Organization(PDF) (PhD thesis).University of Colorado Boulder. p. 6.S2CID 147339315. Archived fromthe original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved24 March 2023.By A.D. 1450, the TarascanUacúsecha were leaders of an empire that spanned 75,000 square kilometers of west Mexico
  38. ^Taagepera, Rein (1997)."Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"(PDF).International Studies Quarterly.41 (3): 480.doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053.ISSN 0020-8833.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved7 July 2020.
  39. ^Scheidel, Walter (2020)."The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution". InBang, Peter Fibiger;Bayly, C. A.;Scheidel, Walter (eds.).The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 102.ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.
  40. ^Myrdal, Janken (2013)."Empire: The comparative study of imperialism". In Hornborg, Alf;Clark, Brett; Hermele, Kenneth (eds.).Ecology and Power: Struggles over Land and Material Resources in the Past, Present and Future. Routledge. p. 43.ISBN 978-1-136-33529-7.
  41. ^abScheidel, Walter (2020)."The Scale of Empire: Territory, Population, Distribution". InBang, Peter Fibiger;Bayly, C. A.;Scheidel, Walter (eds.).The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 103.ISBN 978-0-19-977311-4.

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