Muslim philosophers both professIslam and engage in a style ofphilosophy situated within the structure of the Arabic language and Islam, though not necessarily concerned with religious issues.[1] The sayings of thecompanions ofMuhammad contained little philosophical discussion.[a][3] In the eighth century, extensive contact with theByzantine Empire led to a drive to translate philosophical works ofAncient Greek Philosophy (especially the texts of Aristotle) into Arabic.[3][4]
The ninth-centuryAl-Kindi is considered the founder ofIslamic peripatetic philosophy (800 CE – 1200 CE).[4] The tenth-century philosopheral-Farabi contributed significantly to the introduction of Greek and Roman philosophical works into Muslim philosophical discourse and established many of the themes that would occupy Islamic philosophy for the next centuries; in his broad-ranging work, his work onlogic stands out particularly.[4] In the eleventh century,Ibn Sina, one of the greatest Muslim philosophers ever,[4] developed his own unique school of philosophy known asAvicennism which had strongAristotelian andNeoplatonist roots.Al-Ghazali, a famous Muslim philosopher and theologian, took the approach to resolving apparent contradictions between reason and revelation.[5] He understood the importance of philosophy and developed a complex response that rejected and condemned some of its teachings, while it also allowed him to accept and apply others.[5] It was al-Ghazali's acceptance of demonstration (apodeixis) that led to a much more refined and precise discourse on epistemology and a flowering of Aristotelian logic and metaphysics in Muslim theological circles.[5]Averroes, the last notable Muslim peripatetic philosopher, defended the use of Aristotelian philosophy against this charge; his extensive works include noteworthy commentaries onAristotle.[2][3] In the twelfth century, the philosophy of illumination was founded byShahab al-Din Suhrawardi. Although philosophy in its traditionalAristotelian form fell out of favor in much of the Arab world after the twelfth century, forms of mystical philosophy became more prominent.[1]
AfterAverroes, a vivid peripatetic philosophical school persisted in the eastern Muslim world during theSafavid Empire which scholars have termed as theSchool of Isfahan. It was founded by theShia philosopherMir Damad and developed further byMulla Sadra and others.[2]
| Name | Image | Origin | Period CE | School of Sect | Philosophy |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al-Kindi |  | Iraqi | 801–873 | He was the first of the Muslimperipatetic philosophers, and was considered the "father of Arabic philosophy" and known by the name "The Philosopher of The Arabs".[6][7][8] He was famous for promotion ofGreek andHellenistic philosophy in theMuslim world.[9] One of his main concerns was to show the compatibility of philosophy andspeculative theology. However, he would prefer the revelation to reason, for he believed it guaranteed matters of faith that reason could not uncover.[9] | |
| Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi |  | Persia (Iran) | c. 865–925 | There are contradictory views about his faith. Some, such as ibn Abi Osayba, knew him as a believer, but some, like Abu Hatam and Biruni, knew him as an unbeliever. A philosopher whose theory of the soul, explained inThe Metaphysics, was derived from Islam in which he explained how the soul finds its way to salvation and freedom.[10] In hisPhilosophical Biography, al-Razi defended his philosophical lifestyle, emphasizing that, rather than being self-indulgent, man should utilize his intellect, and apply justice in his life. His defense against his critics is also a book entitledAl Syrat al Falsafiah (The Philosophical Approach).[10][11] He was also an early chemist.[12] | |
| Abu Zayd al-Balkhi | Balkh (Afghanistan) | c. 850-934 | Abu Zayd Ahmed ibn Sahl Balkhi Born in 850 CE in Shamistiyan, in the province ofBalkh,Greater Khorasan, he was a disciple ofal-Kindi. He also founded the "Balkhī school" of terrestrial mapping inBaghdad. Al-Balkhi is believed to have been one of the earliest to diagnose that mental illness can have psychological and physiological causes and he was the first to typify four types of emotional disorders: fear and anxiety; anger and aggression; sadness and depression; and obsessions. | ||
| Al-Farabi |  | Fārāb | 872–951 | Peripatetic | Al-Farabi along withIbn Sina andAverroes have been recognized asPeripatetics orrationalists among Muslims.[13][14][15] He tried to gather the ideas ofPlato andAristotle in his book "The gathering of the ideas of the two philosophers".[16] He was known as "the second master" of philosophy (Aristotle being the first), and his work was dedicated to both reviving and reinventing the Alexandrian philosophical thought, to which his teacher, Yuhanna bin Haylan belonged.[17] |
| Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani | Persia | ?–971 | Inspired byneoplatonism, "hiscosmology and metaphysics develop a concept of God as the one beyond both being and non-being."[18] Intellect which is the first being created by God, he believes, does not disintegrate, and the purpose of the religion is to "reorient the soul toward its true higher self and ultimately to return to its original state."[18][19][20][21] | ||
| Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri | Persia | ?–992 | While opposing the kind of philosophy which is regarded as independent of revelation, he sought to find areas of agreement between different Islamic sects.[22][23] Chapter 1 and 7 of his bookal-I'lam bi manaqib al-Islam (An Exposition on the Merits of Islam) has been translated into English under the titlesThe Quiddity of Knowledge and the Appurtenances of its Species[24] andThe Excellences of Islam in Relation to Royal Authority.[25] His other bookKitab al-amad 'ala'l-abad (On the Afterlife)[26] also has an English translation. | ||
| Ebn Meskavayh | Persia | 932–1030 | ANeoplatonist who wrote the first majorIslamic work on philosophical ethics, entitledTahdhib al-akhlaq (Refinement of Morals), he distinguished between personal ethics and the public realm and contrasted the redemptive nature of reason with the luring trait of nature.[27] | ||
| Al-Maʿarri | Syria | 973–1058 | Pessimist | Apessimisticfreethinker, he attacked dogmas of religion.[28] HisUnnecessary Necessity (Luzūmiyyāt) shows how he saw the business of living. His other workThe Epistle of Forgiveness (Risālat al-Ghufrān) depicts his visiting with theArab poets of thepagan period, inparadise and because of the aspect ofconversing with the deceased in paradise, theRisālat al-Ghufrān has been compared to theDivine Comedy of Dante[29] which came hundreds of years after. | |
| Ibn Sina (Avicenna) |  | Khorāsān Persia | 980–1037 | Peripatetic | Regarded as one of the most significant thinkers and writers of theIslamic Golden Age,[30] his distinction betweenexistence andessence his theory of the nature of the soul in particular, influenced themedieval Europe. His proof of The Existence of God known as The Proof of The Truthful is one of the greatest arguments for the existence of God. Hispsychology and theory of knowledge influencedWilliam of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris andAlbertus Magnus, while his metaphysics was influential on the philosophy ofThomas Aquinas and his philosophy influencedThe scholastic tradition.[31] |
| Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani | Persia (Iran) | 996–1021 | His major work theRahat al-aql (Peace of Mind) explains how to attain the eternal life of the mind and reason, in a changing world.Al-Aqwal al-dhahabiya, (refutingal-Razi's argument against the necessity ofrevelation) andKitab al-riyad (about the early Isma'ili cosmology) are among his other works.[32] | ||
| Nasir Khusraw | Persia (Iran) | 1004–1088 | HisKnowledge and Liberation consists of a series of 30 questions and answers about his time's main issues, from the world's creation to human free will and culpability after death.[33]Rawshana-i-nama (Book of Enlightenment), and theSa'datnama (Book of Felicity) are also among his works. | ||
| Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli |  | Sicily (Italy) | 1104–1170 | He was an Arab-Sicilianphilosopher andpolymath often called "Niccolò Machiavelli's Arab Precursor" for his political insights. His philosophy, particularly in hismagnum opus,Sulwān al-Muṭā (Arabic:سلوان المطاع,lit. 'Consolation for the Ruler'), emphasized practical wisdom and strategies for rulers to navigate hostility and maintain authority.[34][35][36][37] | |
| Al-Ghazali | Persia (Iran) | 1058–1111 | Sufi/Ashari | His main workThe Incoherence of the Philosophers made a turn in Islamicepistemology. His encounter withskepticism made him believe that all causative events are not products of material conjunctions but are due to the Will of God. Later on, in the next century,Averroes's rebuttal of al-Ghazali'sIncoherence became known asThe Incoherence of the Incoherence.[38] | |
| Avempace | Andalusia (Spain) | 1095–1138 | His main philosophical idea is that the human soul could become one with the Divine through a hierarchy starting with sensing of the forms (containing less and less matter) to the impression of Active Intellect. His most important philosophical work isTadbīr al-mutawaḥḥid (The Regime of the Solitary).[39] | ||
| Ibn Tufail | Andalusia (Spain) | 1105–1185 | His workHayy ibn Yaqdhan, is known asThe Improvement of Human Reason in English and is a philosophical and allegorical novel that tells the story of aferal child named Hayy who is raised by agazelle and is living alone without contact with other human beings. This work is continuing Avicenna's version of the story. It is considered as a response toal-Ghazali'sThe Incoherence of the Philosophers, which had criticized Avicenna's philosophy.[40] | ||
| Averroes | _-_BAE09705.jpg) | Spain (Andalusia) | 1126–1198 | Peripatetic | Being described as "founding father of secular thought in Western Europe",[41][42] He was known by the nicknamethe Commentator for his precious commentaries on Aristotle's works. His main work wasThe Incoherence of the Incoherence in which he defended philosophy againstal-Ghazali's claims inThe Incoherence of the Philosophers. His other works were theFasl al-Maqal and theKitab al-Kashf.[41][42] |
| Afdal al-Din Kashani | Persia (Iran) | ?–1213 | He was involved in explaining the salvific power of self-awareness.[43][failed verification] That is: "To know oneself is to know the everlasting reality that is consciousness, and to know it is to be it."[43][failed verification] His ontology is interconnected with hisepistemology, as he believes a full actualization of the potentialities of the world is only possible through self-knowledge.[43][failed verification] | ||
| Najmuddin Kubra | Persia | 1145–1220 | Sufism | As the founder of theKubrawiyya Sufi order,[44] he is regarded as a pioneer of theSufism. His books discuss dreams and visionary experience, among which is a Sufi commentary on theQuran.[45] | |
| Fakhr al-Din al-Razi | Persia (Iran) | 1149–1209 | Ashari | His major workTafsir-e Kabir included many philosophical thoughts, among which was theself-sufficiency of the intellect. He believed that proofs based on traditionhadith could never lead to certainty but only topresumption. Al-Razi'srationalism "holds an important place in the debate in the Islamic tradition on the harmonization of reason and revelation."[46] | |
| Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi | Persia (Iran) | 1155–1191 | Sufi | As the founder ofIlluminationism, an important school inIslamicmysticism, The "light" in his "Philosophy of Illumination" is a divine source of knowledge which has significantly affected Islamic philosophy andesoteric knowledge.[47][48] | |
| Ibn Arabi |  | Spain (Andalusia) | 1165–1240 | Sufi | Known by names like "Shaykh al-Akbar" (The Greatest Master), He was anArabAndalusianSufimystic whose workFusus al-Hikam (The Ringstones of Wisdom) can be described as a summary of his mystical beliefs concerning the role of different prophets in divine revelation. He is seen as the greatest Sufi Metaphysician due to his works likeAl-Futuhat al-Makkiyya and Fusus al-Hikam[49][50][51] |
| Nasir al-Din al-Tusi | Persia (Iran) | 1201–1274 | Peripatetic | As a supporter ofAvicennian logic he was described byIbn Khaldun as the greatest of the laterPersian scholars.[52] Corresponding withSadr al-Din al-Qunawi, the son-in-law ofIbn al-'Arabi, he thought mysticism, as disseminated bySufi principles of his time, was not appealing to his mind so he wrote his own book of philosophical Sufism entitledAwsaf al-Ashraf (The Attributes of the Illustrious). | |
| Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi | Persia (Iran) | 1207-1274 | Sufi | one of the most influential thinkers in mystical orSufi philosophy. He played a pivotal role in the study of knowledge, or epistemology, which in his context referred specifically to the theoretical elaboration of mystical/intellectual insight. He combined a highly original mystic-thinker, Muḥyī al-DīnIbn 'Arabī (1165-1240 CE/560-638 AH), whose arcane teachings Qūnavī codified and helped incorporate into the burgeoning pre-Ottoman intellectual tradition, on the one hand, with the logical/philosophical innovations of Ibn Sīnā (Lat.,Avicenna), on the other.[53] | |
| Rumi | Persia | 1207–1273 | Sufi | Described as the "most popular poet in America",[54] he was an evolutionary thinker, in that he believed that all matter after devolution from the divineEgo experience an evolutionary cycle by which it return to the same divine Ego,[55] which is due to an innate motive which he callslove. Rumi's major work is theMaṭnawīye Ma'nawī (Spiritual Couplets) regarded by someSufis as the Persian-languageQur'an.[56] His other work,Fihi Ma Fihi (In It What's in It), includes seventy-one talks given on various occasions to his disciples.[57] | |
| Ibn al-Nafis |  | Damascus (Syria) | 1213–1288 | HisAl-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah orTheologus Autodidactus is said to be the firsttheological novel in which he attempted to prove that the human mind can deduce the truths of the world through reasoning.[58] He described this book as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world".[59] | |
| Qotb al-Din Shirazi |  | Persia (Iran) | 1217–1311 | He was aSufi fromShiraz who was famous for his commentary onHikmat al-ishraq ofSuhrawardi. His major work is theDurrat al-taj li-ghurratt al-Dubaj (Pearly Crown) which is an Encyclopedic work on philosophy including philosophical views on natural sciences, theology, logic, public affairs, ethics, mysticism, astronomy, mathematics, arithmetic, and music.[60] | |
| Ibn Sabin | Andalusia (Spain) | 1236–1269 | He was aSufi philosopher, the lastphilosopher of theAndalus, and was known for his replies to questions fromFrederick II, the ruler ofSicily. Hisschool is a mixture of philosophical andGnostic thoughts.[61] | ||
| Sayyid Haydar Amuli | Persia | 1319–1385 | As the main commentator of theIbn Arabi's mystic philosophy and the representative of PersianImamah theosophy, he believes that theImams who were gifted withmystical knowledge were not just guides to the ShiaSufis. He was both a critic of Shia whose religion was confined to legalistic system and Sufis who denied certain regulations issued from the Imams.[62] | ||
| Taftazani | Persia | 1322–1390 | Al-Taftazani's treatises, even the commentaries, are "standard books" for students of Islamic theology. His papers have been called a "compendium of the various views regarding the great doctrines of Islam".[63] | ||
| Ibn Khaldun | Tunisia | 1332–1406 | Ashari | He is known for hisThe Muqaddimah whichArnold J. Toynbee called "aphilosophy of history which is undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind."[64]Ernest Gellner considered Ibn Khaldun's definition ofgovernment, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history ofpolitical theory.[65] His theory ofsocial conflict contrasts the sedentary life of city dwellers with the migratory life of nomadic people, which would result in conquering the cities by the desert warriors.[66] | |
| Abdul Karim Jili | Iraq | 1366–1424 | Sufi | Jili was the primary systematizer and commentator ofIbn Arabi's works. HisUniversal Man explains Ibn Arabi's teachings on reality and human perfection, which is among the masterpieces ofSufiliterature.[67][68] Jili thought of the Absolute Being as a Self, which later on influencedMuhammad Iqbal.[69] | |
| Sheikh Noor ud-Din Noorani |  | Kashmir (India) | 1377-1438 | Sufi | One of the greatest Sufi saints to come out of the Indian Sub-Continent, he is known by names like Sheikh ul-Alam (The Master of The World) and Alamdar-e-Kashmir (Standard bearer of Kashmir). His sayings known as "Shruks" have shaped the identity of Kashmir for over 600 years. He is the founder ofRishi Sufi order, The Native Sufi Order of Kashmir.[70] |
| Jami |  | Persia (Iran) | 1414–1492 | Sufi | HisHaft Awrang (Seven Thrones) includes seven stories, among whichSalaman and Absal tells the story of a sensual attraction of a prince for his wet-nurse,[71] through which Jami uses figurative symbols to depict the key stages of theSufi path such as repentance.[72][73] The mystical and philosophical explanations of the nature of divine mercy, is also among his works.[74] |
| Shaykh Yaqub Sarfi Kashmiri | Kashmir (India) | 1521-1595 | Sufi | A student of Jami and known by the name "Jami-as-Sani" (second Jami), he is one of the most influential figures in Kashmir. He was known for his vast knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence, Quranic exegesis, and Hadith studies, as well as his significant contributions to Persian and Sufi poetry. His notable works includeMatlabul Talibin-fi-Tafsir-i-Kalam-i-Rab-Ul-Almin, a commentary on the Quran.[75] | |
| Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī |  | Levant, Jabal Amel | 1547–1621 | Regarded as a leading scholar andmujaddid of the seventeenth century,[43] he worked ontafsir,hadith,grammar andfiqh (jurisprudence).[43] In his workResāla fi’l-waḥda al-wojūdīya (Exposition of the concept of "Unity of Existences"), he states that theSufis are the true believers, "calls for an unbiased assessment of their utterances, and refers to his own mystical experiences."[43][76] | |
| Mir Damad | Persia (Iran) | 1561–1631 | Professing in the Neoplatonizing Islamic Peripatetic traditions ofAvicenna andSuhrawardi, he was the main figure (together with his studentMulla Sadra), of the cultural revival ofIran. He was also the central founder of theSchool of Isfahan, and is regarded as the Third Teacher (mu'alim al-thalith) afterAristotle andal-Farabi.[77]Taqwim al-Iman (Calendars of Faith),Kitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah (Book of the Divine Embers of Fiery Kindling),Kitab al-Jadhawat (Book of Spiritual Attractions) andSirat al-Mustaqim (The Straight Path) are among his 134 works.[78] | ||
| Mir Fendereski | Persia (Iran) | 1562–1640 | He was trained in the works ofAvicenna, andMulla Sadra studied under him.[79] His main workal-Resāla al-ṣenāʿiya, is an examination of the arts and professions in perfect society, and combines a number of genres and subject areas such as political and ethical thought and metaphysics.[80] | ||
| Mulla Sadra | Persia (Iran) | 1571–1641 | Shia | According toOliver Leaman, Mulla Sadra is the most important influential philosopher in the Muslim world in the last four hundred years.[81][82] He is regarded as the master ofIshraqi school of Philosophy who combined the many areas of theIslamic Golden Age philosophies into what he called theTranscendent Theosophy. He brought "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature ofreality" and created "a major transition fromessentialism toexistentialism" in Islamic philosophy.[83] He also created for the first time a "distinctly Muslim school ofHikmah based especially upon the inspired doctrines which form the very basis of Shiism," especially what contained in theNahj al-Balagha.[84] | |
| Qazi Sa’id Qumi | Persia (Iran) | 1633–1692 | He was the pupil ofRajab Ali Tabrizi,Muhsen Feyz andAbd al-Razzaq Lahiji, and wrote comments on the Theology attributed to Aristotle, a work which Muslim philosophers have always continued to read. His commentaries onal-Tawhid byal-Shaykh al-Saduq is also famous.[85] | ||
| Shah Waliullah | India | 1703–1762 | He attempted to reexamine Islamic theology in the view of modern changes. His main workThe Conclusive Argument of God is about Muslim theology and is still frequently referred to by new Islamic circles.Al-Budur al-bazighah (The Full Moons Rising in Splendor) is another work of his in which he explains the basis of faith in place of rational and traditional arguments.[86][87] | ||
| Syed Ameer Ali |  | India | 1849–1928 | Modernist | Sir Syed Ameer Ali was a British-Indian scholar achievingorder of the star of India. He was one of the leading Islamic scholars India who tried to bring modernity in Islam.[88] Instead of revolting against British Empire, he tried to popularize modern education such as learning English language. Two of his most famous books are –The Spirit of Islam andShort History Of The Saracens.[89] |
| Muhammad Iqbal |  | (British India) Pakistan | 1877–1938 | Modernist/ Sufi | Other than being an eminent poet, he is recognized as the "Muslim philosophical thinker of modern times".[90] He wrote two books on the topic ofThe Development of Metaphysics in Persia andThe Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam[91] In which he revealed his thoughts regarding Islamic Sufism explaining that it triggers the searching soul to a superior understanding of life.[91] God, the meaning of prayer, human spirit and Muslim culture are among the other issues discussed in his works.[91] |
| Seyed Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei |  | Persia (Iran) | 1892–1981 | Shia | He is famous forTafsir al-Mizan, theQuranicexegesis. His philosophy is centered on the sociological treatment of human problems.[92] In his later years he would often hold study meetings withHenry Corbin andSeyyed Hossein Nasr, in which the classical texts of divine knowledge and gnosis along with what Nasr calls comparative gnosis were discussed.Shi'a Islam,The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism (Persian:Usul-i-falsafeh va ravesh-i-ri'alism) andDialogues with Professor Corbin (Persian:Mushabat ba Ustad Kurban) are among his works.[92] |
| Ghulam Ahmed Perwez | Pakistan | 1903–1985 | Modernist/ | He was a famous theologian from Pakistan inspired byMuhammad Iqbal.[93] Being a protege of Allama Muhammad Iqbal his main focus was to separate between"Deen" and"Madhab". According to him, Islam was revealed as Deen which's main purpose was to create a successful and happy society.[94] He rejected the idea of a state being ruled by Islamic scholars, although he also criticized western secularism.[95] He firmly believed that Islam isn't based on blind faith but rational thinking. His most famous book is"Islam: A Challenge to Religion". | |
| Abul A'la Maududi | Pakistan | 1903–1979 | His major work isThe Meaning of the Qur'an in which he explains that The Quran is not a book of abstract ideas, but a Book which contains a message which causes a movement.[96] Islam, he believes, is not a 'religion' in the sense this word is usually comprehended, but a system encompassing all areas of living.[97] In his bookIslamic Way of Life, he largely expanded on this view. | ||
| Henry Corbin | France | 1903–1978 | He was aphilosopher,theologian and professor ofIslamic Studies at theSorbonne inParis where he encounteredLouis Massignon, and it was he who introduced Corbin to the writings ofSuhrawardi whose work affected the course of Corbin's life.[98] In his History of Islamic Philosophy, he refuted the view that philosophy among the Muslims came to an end after Averroes, showed rather that a vivid philosophical activity persisted in the eastern Muslim world – especially Iran.[98] | ||
| Abdel Rahman Badawi | Egypt | 1917–2002 | He adopted existentialism since he wrote hisExistentialist Time in 1943. His version of existentialism, according to his own description, differs from Heidegger's and other existentialists in that it gives preference to action rather than thought. in his later work,Humanism And Existentialism In Arab Thought, however, he tried to root his ideas in his own culture.[99][100] | ||
| Morteza Motahhari |  | Persia (Iran) | 1919–1979 | Shia | Considered among the important influences on the ideologies of theIslamic Republic,[101] he started from theHawza ofQom. Then he taught philosophy in theUniversity of Tehran for 22 years. Between 1965 and 1973, however, he gave regular lectures atthe Hosseiniye Ershad in Northern Tehran, most of which have been turned into books on Islam, Iran, and historical topics.[102] |
| Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi | Mandatory Palestine | 1921–1986 | Sunni | Renowned for his contributions to the concepts ofTawhid,meta-religion, and theIslamization of knowledge. His key works includeAl-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life, Christian Ethics, andThe Cultural Atlas of Islam. Al-Faruqi’s scholarship emphasized the unity of divine principles and holistic knowledge across disciplines.[103][104][105] | |
| Mohammad-Taqi Ja'fari |  | Persia (Iran) | 1923–1998 | Shia | He wrote many books on a variety of fields, the most prominent of which is his 15-volume Interpretation and Criticism ofRumi'sMasnavi, and his unfinished, 27-volume Translation and Interpretation of theNahj al-Balagha. These works show his ideas in anthropology, sociology, moral ethics, philosophy and mysticism. |
| Mohammed Arkoun | Algeria | 1928–2010 | Modernist | He wrote on Islam and modernity trying to rethink the role of Islam in the contemporary world.[106] In his bookRethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers he offers his responses to several questions for those who are concerned about the identity crisis which left many Muslims estranged from both modernity and tradition.The Unthought In Contemporary Islamic Thought is also among his works.[106][107] | |
| Israr Ahmed | Pakistan | 1932–2010 | He is the author ofIslamic Renaissance: The Real Task Ahead in which he explains the theoretical idea of theCaliphate system, arguing that it would only be possible by revivingIman and faith among the Muslims in general and intelligentsia in particular. This would, he argues, fill the existing gap between new sciences, and Islamic divine knowledge.[108] | ||
| Ali Shariati |  | Persia (Iran) | 1933–1977 | Modernist/ Shia | Ali Shariati Mazinani (Persian: علی شریعتی مزینانی, 23 November 1933 – 18 June 1977) was an Iranian revolutionary and sociologist who focused on the sociology of religion. He is held as one of the most influential Iranian intellectuals of the 20th century[3] and has been called the "ideologue of the Iranian Revolution", although his ideas ended up not forming the basis of the Islamic Republic |
| Abdollah Javadi-Amoli | Persia (Iran) | 1933– | Shia | His works are dedicated to Islamic philosophy, especiallyMulla Sadra's transcendent philosophy.[83]Tafsir Tasnim is his explanation of theQuran in which he followsTabatabaei'sTafsir al-Mizan, in that he tries to interpret a verse based on other verses.[109] His other workAs-Saareh-e-Khelqat is a discussion about the philosophy of faith and evidence of the existence of God. | |
| Seyyed Hossein Nasr |  | Persia (Iran) | 1933– | Sufi/Shia | He is a majorperennialist thinker. His works defend Islamic and perennialist doctrines and principles while challenging the theoretical underpinnings of modern science. He argues thatknowledge has been desacralized in themodern period, that is, separated from its divine source—God—and calls for itsresacralization throughsacred traditions andsacred science. Hisenvironmental philosophy is expressed in terms ofIslamic environmentalism and theresacralization of nature. |
| Sadiq Jalal al-Azm |  | Turkey | 1934–2016 | Critic of Islam[110] | He was working onImmanuel Kant, though, later in his life, he put greater emphasis on theIslamic world and its relationship to the West. He was also a supporter ofhuman rights, intellectual freedom and free speech.[111] |
| Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi | Persia (Iran) | 1934–2021 | Shia | He is an IslamicFaqih who has also studied works ofAvicenna andMulla Sadra. He supportsIslamic philosophy and in particularMulla Sadra's transcendent philosophy. His bookPhilosophical Instructions: An Introduction to Contemporary Islamic Philosophy is translated into English.[112] | |
| Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr | Iraq | 1935–1980 | Shia | He was anIraqiShia philosopher and founder of theIslamic Dawa Party. HisFalsafatuna (Our Philosophy) is a collection of basic ideas concerning the world, and his way of considering it. These concepts are divided into two researches: The theory of knowledge, and the philosophical notion of the world.[113] | |
| Mohammed Abed al-Jabri | Morocco | 1935–2010 | Modernist | His workDemocracy, Human Rights and Law in Islamic Thought while showing the distinctive nationality of the Arabs, reject the philosophical discussion which have tried to ignore its democratic deficits. Working in the tradition ofAvincenna andAverroes, he emphasizes that concepts such as democracy and law cannot rely on old traditions, nor could be import, but should be created by today's Arabs themselves.[114]The Formation of Arab Reason: Text, Tradition and the Construction of Modernity in the Arab World is also among his works. | |
| Abdolkarim Soroush |  | Persia (Iran) | 1945– | Shia/ Neoplatonist | Being interested in the philosophy of religion and the philosophical system ofRumi, his bookthe evolution and devolution of religious knowledge argues that "a religion (such as Islam) may be divine and unchanging, but our understanding of religion remains in a continuous flux and a totally human endeavor."[115][116] |
| Javed Ahmed Ghamidi |  | Pakistan | 1951– | Modernist | Javed Ahmed Ghamidi is a Pakistani theologian. He is regarded as one of the contemporary modernists of the Islamic world.[117] LikeParwez he also promotes rationalism and secular thought with deen.[118] Ghamidi is also popular for his moderatefatwas. Ghamidi also holds the view ofdemocracy being compatible with Islam.[119] |
| Gary Legenhausen | US | 1953– | Islam and Religious Pluralism is among his works in which he advocates "non-reductive religious pluralism".[120] In his paper "The Relationship between Philosophy and Theology in the Postmodern Age" he is trying to examine whether philosophy can agree with theology.[121] | ||
| Mostafa Malekian | Persia (Iran) | 1956– | Shia | He is working onRationality and Spirituality in which he is trying to make Islam and reasoning compatible. His major workA Way to Freedom is about spirituality and wisdom.[122] | |
| Insha-Allah Rahmati | Persia (Iran) | 1966– | His fields of can be summarized as follows:Ethics andPhilosophy of Religion andIslamic Philosophy. Most of his work in these three areas. | ||
| Shabbir Akhtar | England | 1960–2023 | Neo-orthodox Analytical Philosophy | This Cambridge-trained thinker is trying to revive the tradition of Sunni Islamic philosophy, defunct since Ibn Khaldun, against the background of western analytical philosophical method. His major treatise isThe Quran and the Secular Mind (2007). | |
| Tariq Ramadan |  | Switzerland/ France | 1962– | Modernist | Working mainly on Islamic theology and the place of Muslims in the West,[123] he believes that western Muslims must think up a "Western Islam" in accordance to their own social circumstances.[124] |
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