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Thislist of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including those from the historicIndian subcontinent and the modern-dayRepublic of India. It draws from the wholecultural andtechnological of India|cartography,metallurgy,logic,mathematics,metrology andmineralogy were among the branches of study pursued byits scholars.^[1] During recent timesscience and technology in the Republic of India has also focused onautomobile engineering,information technology,communications as well as research intospace andpolar technology.

For the purpose of this list, theinventions are regarded as technological firsts developed within territory of India, as such does not include foreign technologies which India acquired through contact or any Indian origin living in foreign country doing any breakthroughs in foreign land. It also does not include not a new idea, indigenous alternatives, low-cost alternatives, technologies or discoveries developed elsewhere and later invented separately in India, nor inventions by Indian emigres orIndian diaspora in other places. Changes in minor concepts of design or style and artistic innovations do not appear in the lists.

• Indigo dye – Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major, old world, centre for its production and processing.^[2] TheIndigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.^[2] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to theGreeks and theRomans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.^[2]
• Jute cultivation – Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.^[3] Raw jute was exported to thewestern world, where it was used to makeropes and cordage.^[3] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernised during the British Raj in India.^[3] The region ofBengal was the major centre for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernisation of India's jute industry in 1855, whenKolkata became a centre for jute processing in India.^[3]
• Sugar – Sugarcane was originally from tropicalSouth Asia andSoutheast Asia,^[4] with different species originating in India, andS. edule andS. officinarum fromNew Guinea.^[4] The process of producing crystallised sugar from sugar cane, in India, dates to at least the beginning of the common era, with 1st century CE Greek and Roman authors writing on Indian sugar.^[5][6] The process was soon transmitted to China with travelling Buddhist monks.^[7] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.^[8] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.^[8]

• Stepwell – While the early history of stepwells is poorly understood, water structures in Western India were their likely predecessor.^[9] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.^[9]
• Stupa – The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd-century BCE India.^[10] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.^[10] The stupa architecture was adopted inSoutheast andEast Asia, where it evolved into thepagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.^[10]
• ResidentialUniversity –Nalanda (Nālandā,pronounced[naːlən̪d̪aː]) was a renownedmahavihara (Buddhist monastic university) in ancientMagadha (modern-dayBihar), easternIndia.^[11][12][13] Considered by historians to be the world's first residential university^[14] and among the greatest centres of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (nowRajgir) and about 90 kilometres (56 mi) southeast of Pataliputra (nowPatna) and operated from 427 until 1197 CE.^[15]

• Cheque/Check – There is early evidence of using cheques/checks. In India, during theMaurya Empire (from 321 to 185 BC), a commercial instrument called the "Adesha" was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person (now known as or referred to as a "Negotiable Instrument").^[16]

• Atya-patya – This variation of tag was being played as early as 100 CE, and was possibly invented by farmers as a way of practicing driving away birds. It was later used as a form of military training inKerala in close relation to the martial art ofkalaripayattu.^[17]
• Blindfold chess –Games prohibited by Buddha includes a variant of ashtapada game played on imaginary boards.Akasam astapadam was anashtapada variant played with no board, literally "astapadam played in the sky". A correspondent in theAmerican Chess Bulletin identifies this as likely the earliest literary mention of a blindfold chess variant.^[18]
• Carrom – The game of carrom originated inIndia.^[19] One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces inPatiala, India.^[20] It became very popular among the masses afterWorld War I. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the twentieth century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun inSri Lanka in 1935 but by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes.^[21]
• Chaturanga – The precursor ofchess originated in India during theGupta dynasty (c. 280–550 CE).^{[22][23][24][25]} Both thePersians andArabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.^[24][26][27] The words for "chess" inOld Persian andArabic arechatrang andshatranj respectively – terms derived fromcaturaṅga inSanskrit,^[28][29] which literally means anarmy of four divisions orfour corps.^[30][31] Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.^[32] This game was introduced to theNear East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education ofPersian nobility.^[30]Buddhist pilgrims,Silk Road traders and others carried it to theFar East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.^[32] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, theByzantine empire and the expandingArabian empire.^[31][33]Muslims carried Shatranj toNorth Africa,Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.^[32]
• Kabaddi – The game ofkabaddi originated in India during prehistory.^[34] Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self-defence but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400 BCE.^[34]
• Kalaripayattu – One of the world's oldest form of martial arts isKalaripayattu that developed in the southwest state ofKerala in India.^[35] It is believed to be the oldest surviving martial art in India, with a history spanning over 3,000 years.^[36]
• Kho-kho – This is one of the oldest variations oftag in the world, having been played since as early as the fourth century BCE.^[37]
• Ludo –Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.^[38] The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.^[38] A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.^[38]
• Mallakhamba – It is a traditional sport, originating from theIndian subcontinent, in which agymnast performs aerialyoga orgymnastic postures andwrestling grips in concert with a vertical stationary or hanging wooden pole, cane, or rope.The earliest literary known mention of Mallakhamb is in the 1135 CE Sanskrit classicManasollasa, written bySomeshvara III. It has been thought to be the ancestor ofPole Dancing.
• Nuntaa, also known as Kutkute.^[39]
• Seven stones – An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilization.^[40]
• Snakes and ladders – Vaikunta pali Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.^[41] During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneerMilton Bradley in 1943.^[41]
• Suits game: Kridapatram is an earlysuits game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The termkridapatram literally means "painted rags for playing."^{[42][43][44][45][46]} Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century.^[42][47] The medieval Indian game ofganjifa, or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century.^[48]
• Vajra-mushti – refers to a wrestling whereknuckleduster like weapon is employed.The first literary mention of vajra-musti comes from theManasollasa of theChalukya king Someswara III (1124–1138), although it has been conjectured to have existed since as early as theMaurya dynasty^[49][50]

• Button – Ornamental buttons—made fromseashell—were used in theIndus Valley civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.^[51] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.^[51] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in theIndus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."^[52]

• Calico – Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th-century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.^[53] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics fromGujarat appeared inEgypt.^[53] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onward.^[53] Within India, calico originated inKozhikode.^[53]
• Carding devices – Historian of scienceJoseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.^[54] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).^[54] These carding devices, calledkaman anddhunaki would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string.^[54]
• Cashmere – The fibre cashmere fibre also known aspashm orpashmina for its use inthe handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.^[55] The woolen shawls made from wool in Indian administeredKashmir find written mention between the 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.^[56]
• Charkha (Spinning wheel): invented in India, between 500 and 1000 CE.^[57]
• Chintz – The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.^[58] The origin of the wordchintz itself is from theHindi language word चित्र् (chitr), which means an image.^[58][59]
• Cotton cultivation – Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of theIndus Valley civilisation by the5th millennium BCE – 4th millennium BCE.^[60] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practised until the modern industrialisation of India.^[61] Well before theCommon Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to theMediterranean and beyond.^[62]
• Single roller cotton gin – TheAjanta Caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.^[63] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.^[64] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known ascharkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.^[54]
• Worm drivecotton gin – The worm drive later appeared in theIndian subcontinent, for use in rollercotton gins, during theDelhi Sultanate in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.^[65]
• Crank HandleCotton Gin – The incorporation of thecrank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in either the lateDelhi Sultanate or the earlyMughal Empire (15-16th century CE).^[66]
• Palampore –पालमपोर् (Hindi language) of Indian origin^[67] was imported to the western world—notable England andColonial America—from India.^[68][69] In 17th-century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.^[68] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used inquilting.^[69]
• Prayer flags – TheBuddhistsūtras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.^[70] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.^[70] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to theShakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by thedevas against their adversaries, theasuras.^[71] The legend may have given the Indianbhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment toahimsa.^[72] This knowledge was carried intoTibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.^[72] The Indian monkAtisha (980–1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.^[71]
• Shellac - a biopolymer resin that is secreted by an insect calledlac bug onto tree trunks, it has multiple uses such as wood polishing, drug coating, candies etc. its name is derived fromlakh word.
• Rollersugar mill – Geared sugarrolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well asworm gearing, by the 17th century.^[73]

• Indian clubs: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.^[74] During theBritish Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in physical condition.^[74] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.^[74]
• Shampoo – The wordshampoo in English is derived fromHindustanicā̃po (चाँपोIPA:[tʃãːpoː]),^[75] and dates to 1762.^[76] A variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times in India, evidence of early herbal shampoo have been discovered from Indus Valley Civilization site of Banawali dated to 2750–2500 BCE.^[77] A very effective early shampoo was made by boilingSapindus with driedIndian gooseberry (aamla) and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is calledKsuna (Sanskrit: क्षुण)^[78] in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contain saponins, a natural surfactant. The extract of Ksuna, creates a lather which Indian texts identify asphenaka (Sanskrit: फेनक),^[79] leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai (Acacia concinna), soapnuts (Sapindus),hibiscus flowers,^[80][81] ritha (Sapindus mukorossi) and arappu (Albizzia amara).^[82]Guru Nanak, the founding prophet and the firstGuru ofSikhism, made references to soapberry tree and soap in 16th century.^[83] Washing of hair and body massage (champu) during a daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced their newly learnt habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.^[84]
• Yoga – Yoga as a physical, mental, and spiritual practice originated inancient India.^[85]

• Angina pectoris – The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described bySushruta (6th century BCE).^[86]
• Ayurvedic andSiddha medicine – Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient systems of medicine practised in South Asia. Ayurvedic ideas can be found in the Hindu text^[87] (mid-first millennium BCE). Ayurveda has evolved over thousands of years, and is still practised today. In an internationalised form, it can be thought of as acomplementary and alternative medicine. In village settings, away from urban centres, it is simply "medicine." The Sanskrit word आयुर्वेदः (āyur-vedaḥ) means "knowledge(veda) for longevity (āyur)".^[88] Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India, and is transmitted in Tamil, not Sanskrit, texts. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of the Siddha therapeutic system whose origins may be dated to the early centuries CE.^[89][90]
• Diabetes: PhysiciansSushruta andCharaka distinguished the two different types of diabetes, which is latter dubbed asType I andType II diabetes.^{[91][92][93][94][95]}
• Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatiseSushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).^[96] However,The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in theAtharva-veda (1500–1200 BCE), written before theSushruta Samhita.^[97]
• Lithiasis treatment – The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in theSushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).^[98] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.^[98]
• Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of – The Indian (Bengali) medical practitionerUpendranath Brahmachari (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for theNobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonialcompound for treatment ofkala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'^[99] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.^[100] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.^[100]
• Ganja was used as herb for ayurverdic medicine development for last 2,000 years. The Sushruta Samhita, an ancient medical treatise, recommends cannabis plant extract for treating respiratory ailments and diarrhoea.
• Otoplasty – Ear surgery was developed inancient India and is described in the medical compendium, theSushruta Samhita (Sushruta's Compendium,c. 500 AD). The book discussed otoplastic and otherplastic surgery techniques and procedures for correcting, repairing and reconstructing ears,noses, lips, and genitalia that were amputated as criminal, religious, and military punishments. The ancient Indianmedical knowledge and plastic surgery techniques of theSushruta Samhita were practiced throughout Asia until the late 18th century; the October 1794 issue of the contemporary BritishGentleman's Magazine reported the practice ofrhinoplasty, as described in theSushruta Samhita. Moreover, two centuries later, contemporary practices of otoplastic praxis were derived from the techniques and procedures developed and established in antiquity by Sushruta.^[101][102]
• Tonsillectomy – Tonsillectomies have been practiced for over 2,000 years, with varying popularity over the centuries.^[103] The earliest mention of the procedure is in "Hindu medicine" from about 1000BCE
• Caesarian section – TheSanskrit medical treatiseSushruta Samhita, composed in the early 1st millennium CE, mentions post-mortem caesarean sections.^[104] The first available non-mythical record of a C-section is the mother ofBindusara (bornc. 320 BC, ruled 298 –c. 272 BC), the 2ndMauryanSamrat (emperor) of India, accidentally consumed poison and died when she was close to delivering him.Chanakya, Chandragupta's teacher and adviser, made up his mind that the baby should survive. He cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby, thus saving the baby's life.^[105]

• Toe stirrup – The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE^[106] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.^[107][108] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.^[108] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.^[108] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated inJunapani in the central Indian state ofMadhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.^[109] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi,Mathura and theBhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.^{[110][111][112]}Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".^[112] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.^[107] However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.^[108][111]

• Iron working – Iron works were developed in India, around the same time as, but independently of,Anatolia and theCaucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such asMalhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-dayUttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE.^[113] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method ofradiocarbon dating.Spikes,knives,daggers,arrow-heads,bowls,spoons,saucepans,axes,chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.^[114] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was practised on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.^[113] InSouthern India (present dayMysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.^[115] In the time ofChandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect theIron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.^[116]
• Crucible steel by theWootz process – Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 BCE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India, by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.^[117] Wootz steel is an ultra-high carbon steel, with a natural inclusion of carbide formingVanadium (~0.005%), resulting in the formation ofnanomaterials in its microstructure and characterised by exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness.^[118] Archaeological andTamil languageliterary evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the common era, withwootz steel exported from theChera dynasty and calledSeric Iron in Rome, and later known asDamascus steel in Europe.^{[119][120][121][122]} Reproduction research undertaken by Prof. J.D Verhoeven and Al Pendray identified the role of impurities within the local ore, in carbide formation, and repeated thermal cycling of blades, in the pattern creation, and reproduced Wootz steel blades with patterns microscopically and visually identical to ancient blade patterns.^[123]
• Dockyard – The world's earliest enclosed dockyard was built in the Harappan port city ofLothal circa 2600 BC in Gujarat, India.^[124][125]
• Diamond drills – in the 12th century BCE or 7th century BCE, Indians not only innovated use of diamond tipped drills but also invented double diamond tipped drills for bead manufacturing.^[126]
• Diamond cutting and polishing – The technology of cutting and polishing diamonds was invented in India, Ratnapariksha, a text dated to 6th century talks about diamond cutting and Al-Beruni speaks about the method of using lead plate for diamond polishing in the 11th century CE.^[127]
• Draw bar – The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use atDelhi in theMughal Empire by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to theDelhi Sultanate.^[128]
• Etched carnelian beads – are a type of ancient decorative beads made fromcarnelian with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by theHarappans during the 3rd millennium BCE and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west.^{[129][130][131]}
• Glassblowing – Rudimentary form of glass blowing fromIndian subcontinent is attested earlier than Western Asian counterparts(where it is attested not earlier than 1st century BCE) in the form ofIndo-Pacific beads which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected totube drawn technique for bead making dated more than 2500 BP.^[132][133] Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather.^[134] The glass blown vessels were rarely attested and were imported commodity in 1st millennium CE though.
• Lost-wax casting – Metal casting by theIndus Valley civilization began around 3500 BC in theMohenjodaro area,^[135] which produced one of the earliest known examples of lost-wax casting, a bronze figurine named the "dancing girl"(c. 2300–1751 BCE).^[135][136] Other examples include the buffalo, bull and dog found at Mohenjodaro andHarappa,^{[137][136][138]} twocopper figures found at the Harappan siteLothal in the district of Ahmedabad of Gujarat,^[135] and likely a covered cart with wheels missing and a complete cart with a driver found atChanhudaro.^[137][138]
• Seamlesscelestial globe – Considered one of the most remarkable feats inmetallurgy, it was invented in India in between 1589 and 1590 CE.^[139][140] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without anyseams, even with modern technology.^[140]
• Stoneware – bangles have been excavated at Indus Valley Civilization sites ofHarappa andMohenjo Daro; kiln fired, at a temperature, above 1,150 °C (2,100 °F), several hundred decrees above the temperature necessary for earthenware, these are the earliest known stoneware ceramics.^{[141][142][143]}
• Tube drawn technology: Indians used tube drawn technology for glass bead manufacturing which was first developed in the 2nd century BCE.^{[144][145][134]}
• Tumble polishing – Indians innvoted polishing method in the 10th century BCE for mass production of polished stone beads.^{[146][126][147][148]}
• Rain gauge – People living inIndia began to record rainfall in 400 BCE.^[149] The readings were correlated against expected growth. In theArthashastra, used for example inMagadha, precise standards were set as to grain production. Each state storehouse was equipped with a rain gauge to classify land for taxation purposes.^[150]
• Touchstone – The touchstone was used during theHarappa period of the Indus Valley civilization ca. 2600–1900 BC for testing the purity of soft metals.^[151]

• Standardisation – The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation in the 5th millennium BCE characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as^[152] well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.^[152] The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reachedPersia andCentral Asia, where they were further modified.^[153]

A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, andChanhu-daro, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5 m in thickness. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on thebinary anddecimal systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made ofchert.^[154]

• Technical standards – Technical standards were being applied and used in theIndus Valley civilisation since the 5th millennium BCE to enable gauging devices to be effectively used inangular measurement andmeasurement in construction.^[155] Uniform units of length were used in the planning and construction of towns such asLothal,Surkotada,Kalibangan,Dholavira,Harappa, andMohenjo-daro.^[154] The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reachedPersia andCentral Asia, where they were further modified.^[153]

• Metal cylinderrocket: In the 16th century,Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known asbans, particularly againstwar elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.^{[156][better source needed]}
• Mysorean rockets – One of the first iron-casedrockets were deployed byHyder Ali's army, ruler of the South IndianKingdom of Mysore.^[157]
• Rocket artillery - The first true rocket artillery was developed byTipu Sultan and was notably in use during theAnglo-Mysore Wars.^[158][159]

• Catuskoti (Tetralemma) – The four-cornered system of logical argumentation with a suite of four distinct functions that refers to a logical proposition P, with four possibilities that can arise. The tetralemma has manylogico-epistemological applications and has been made ample use of by the Indian philosopherNāgarjuna in theMadhyamaka school. The tetralemma also features prominently in the Greekskepticist school ofPyrrhonism, the teachings of which are based on Buddhism. According toChristopher I. Beckwith ,the founder of the Pyrrhonist school lived in India for 18 months and likely learned the language, which allowed him to carry these teachings to Greece.^[160] However, other scholars, such asStephen Batchelor^[161] and Charles Goodman^[162] question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho
• Trairūpya – Trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' (pramana):

1. It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus' (pakṣa)
2. It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa)
3. It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa)

When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas. Likewise, the sign may be present in all, some or none of the vipakṣas. To identify a sign, we have to assume that it is present in the pakṣa, however; that is the first condition is already satisfied. Combining these, Dignaga constructed his ‘Wheel of Reason’ (Sanskrit:Hetucakra).^[163]

• Jaina seven-valued logic – TheSaptabhangivada, the seven predicate theory may be summarized as follows:^[164]

The seven predicate theory consists in the use of seven claims about sentences, each preceded by "arguably" or "conditionally" (syat), concerning a single object and its particular properties, composed of assertions and denials, either simultaneously or successively, and without contradiction. These seven claims are the following.

1. Arguably, it (that is, some object) exists (syad asty eva).
2. Arguably, it does not exist (syan nasty eva).
3. Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist (syad asty eva syan nasty eva).
4. Arguably, it is non-assertible (syad avaktavyam eva).
5. Arguably, it exists; arguably, it is non-assertible (syad asty eva syad avaktavyam eva).
6. Arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably, it is non-assertible (syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva).
7. Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably it is non-assertible (syad asty eva syan nasty eva syad avaktavyam eva).

• Zero – Zero and its operation are first defined by (Hindu astronomer and mathematician) Brahmagupta in 628.^[165] The Babylonians used a space, and later a zero glyph, in their writtenSexagesimal system, to signify the 'absent',^[166] the Olmecs used a positional zero glyph in theirVigesimal system, the Greeks, fromPtolemy'sAlmagest, aō, in aSexagesimal system. The Chinese used a blank, in the written form of their decimalCounting rods system. A dot, rather than a blank, was first seen to denote zero, in a decimal system, in theBakhshali manuscript.^[167] The usage of the zero in the Bakhshali manuscript has been dated between the 8th and 11th centuries, making it the earliest known usage of a written zero, in a decimal place value system.^[168]
• Hindu number system – Withdecimal place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely usedArabic numeral system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.^[169][170]
• Law of signs in multiplication – The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, assubtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.^[171] Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.^[171] Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,^[171] and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.^[172] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,^[173] and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.,^[172] for example (+)×(-)=(-),(-)×(-)=(+) etc.
• Sign convention – Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.^[174] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.^[174] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.^[174] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating thenumerator and thedenominator.^[174] A dot symbol fornegative numbers was also employed.^[174] TheBakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolised subtraction when written just after the number affected.^[174] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.^[174] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.^[175]
• Modernelementary arithmetic – Modum indorum or the method of the Indians for arithmetic operations was popularised by Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi by means of their respective works such as in Al-Khwarizmi's on the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (ca. 825), On the Use of the Indian Numerals (ca. 830)^[176] as early as the 8th and 9th centuries.They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of arithmetic in the Middle-East and the West.The significance of the development of the positional number system is described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who wrote:

"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."

• Chakravala method – The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solveindeterminatequadratic equations is commonly attributed toBhāskara II, (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)^{[177][178][179]} although some attribute it toJayadeva (c. 950~1000 CE).^[180] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta's approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.^[181] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in hisBijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method,chakra (derived fromcakraṃ चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' inSanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.^[181][182] With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.^{[177][181][183]}
• Trigonometric functions – Thetrigonometric functionssine andversine originated inIndian astronomy along with thecosine and inversine, adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions). They were described in detail byAryabhata in the late 5th century, but were likely developed earlier in theSiddhantas, astronomical treatises of the 3rd or 4th century.^[184][185] Later, the 6th-century astronomerVarahamihira discovered a few basic trigonometric formulas and identities, such as sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1.^[186]
• Mean value theorem – A special case of thistheorem for inverse interpolation of the sine was first described byParameshvara (1380–1460), from theKerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics inIndia, in his commentaries onGovindasvāmi andBhāskara II.^[187]
• Bhāskara I's sine approximation formula
• Madhava series – The infinite series forπ and for the trigonometricsine,cosine, andarctangent is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – 1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.^[188][189] He made use of the series expansion of${\displaystyle \arctan x}$ to obtain an infinite series expression forπ.^[188] Their rational approximation of theerror for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series forπ.^[190] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,^[190]${\displaystyle 104348/33215}$ forπ correct up to eleven decimal places,i.e.${\displaystyle 3.1415926539214}$.^[191][192] Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at theKerala school of astronomy and mathematics used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosine, and arctangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.^{[193][194][195]}
• Power series – The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Tirur, Malappuram, Kerala, India. Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series). However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration.^[196]
• Finite differenceinterpolation – The Indian mathematicianBrahmagupta presented what is possibly the first instance^[197][198] of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.^[199]
• Algebraic abbreviations – The mathematicianBrahmagupta had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.^[174] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.^[174] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations forsquare roots andcube roots.^[174]
• Systematic generation of all permutations – The method goes back toNarayana Pandita in 14th century India, and has been rediscovered frequently.^[200]
• Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598–668 CE):^{[201][202][203][204]}
  • Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity
  • Brahmagupta formula
  • Brahmagupta theorem
• Combinatorics – theBhagavati Sutra had the first mention of a combinatorics problem; the problem asked how many possible combinations of tastes were possible from selecting tastes in ones, twos, threes, etc. from a selection of six different tastes (sweet, pungent, astringent, sour, salt, and bitter). The Bhagavati is also the first text to mention thechoose function.^[205] In the second century BC,Pingala included an enumeration problem in theChanda Sutra (also Chandahsutra) which asked how many ways a six-syllable metre could be made from short and long notes.^[206][207] Pingala found the number of metres that had${\displaystyle n}$ long notes and${\displaystyle k}$ short notes; this is equivalent to finding thebinomial coefficients.
• Jain texts define five different types ofinfinity – the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually.^[208] and theSatkhandagama
• Fibonacci numbers – This sequence was first described byVirahanka (c. 700 CE), Gopāla (c. 1135), andHemachandra (c. 1150),^[209] as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody byPingala (c. 200 BCE).
• Madhava's correction terms – Madhava's correction term is a mathematical expression attributed toMadhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – c. 1425), the founder of theKerala school of astronomy and mathematics, that can be used to give a better approximation to the value of the mathematical constantπ (pi) than the partial sum approximation obtained by truncating theMadhava-Leibniz infinite series forπ. The Madhava-Leibniz infinite series forπ.
• Pascal's triangle – Described in the 6th century CE byVarahamihira^[186] and in the 10th century byHalayudha,^[210] commenting on an obscure reference byPingala (the author of an earlier work on prosody) to the "Meru-prastaara", or the "Staircase of Mount Meru", in relation to binomial coefficients. (It was also independently discovered in the 10th or 11th century in Persia and China.)
• Integral solution toPell's equation – About a thousand years beforePell's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598–668 CE) was able to find integral solutions tovargaprakṛiti (Pell's equation):^[211][212]${\displaystyle x^2-N{y}^2=1,}$ whereN is a non-square integer, in hisBrâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta treatise.^[213]
• Ardhacheda – Earlier thanMichael Stifel, the 8th centuryJain mathematicianVirasena is credited with a precursor to the binary logarithm. Virasena's concept ofardhacheda has been defined as the number of times a given number can be divided evenly by two. This definition gives rise to a function that coincides with the binary logarithm on the powers of two,^[214] but it is different for other integers, giving the2-adic order rather than the logarithm.^[215]
• Kuṭṭaka – The Kuṭṭaka algorithm has much similarity with and can be considered as a precursor of the modern dayextended Euclidean algorithm. The latter algorithm is a procedure for finding integersx andy satisfying the conditionax +by =gcd(a,b).^[216]
• Preliminary differentiation – Preliminary concept of differentiation and thedifferential coefficient were known tobhaskaracharya^[217]

• Formal grammar /Formal systems – In his treatiseAstadhyayi,Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe the formal grammar ofSanskrit.^[218] Informal language theory, agrammar (when the context is not given, often called aformal grammar for clarity) is a set ofproduction rules forstrings in aformal language. The rules describe how to form strings from the language'salphabet that are valid according to the language'ssyntax. A grammar does not describe themeaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. TheBackus-Naur form, used to describe thesyntax of programming languages, applies similar concepts.^[219]
• Sarvatobhadra Palindrome: The most complex palindrome, an example of which is in theShishupala Vadha ofMagha.

सकारनानारकास- कायसाददसायका । रसाहवा वाहसार- नादवाददवादना ॥ sakāranānārakāsa- kāyasādadasāyakā rasāhavā vāhasāra- nādavādadavādanā.

sa kā ra nā nā ra kā sa kā ya sā da da sā ya kā ra sā ha vā vā ha sā ra nā da vā da da vā da nā (and the lines reversed) nā da vā da da vā da nā ra sā ha vā vā ha sā ra kā ya sā da da sā ya kā sa kā ra nā nā ra kā sa

"[That army], which relished battle (rasāhavā) contained allies who brought low the bodes and gaits of their various striving enemies (sakāranānārakāsakāyasādadasāyakā), and in it the cries of the best of mounts contended with musical instruments (vāhasāranādavādadavādanā)."

Palindromic Novel: The Ramakrishna Vilomakavyam by Dyvagnya Surya Pandita is an example of a narrative that, when read forward, relate the story of the Ramayana and, when read backward, relate the story of the Mahabharata.

• Diamond mining and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognised and mined in central India,^{[220][221][222]} where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the riversPenner,Krishna andGodavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.^[223] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.^{[224][225][226]}Golconda served as an important centre for diamonds incentral India.^[227] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.^[227] Early references to diamonds in India come fromSanskrit texts.^[228] TheArthashastra ofKautilya mentions diamond trade in India.^[226]Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.^[220] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.^[220] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".^[220] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel.^[220]
• Zinc mining andmedicinal zinc – Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.^[229] Zinc mines of Zawar, nearUdaipur,Rajasthan, were active during early Christian era.^[230][231] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in theCharaka Samhita (300 BCE).^[232] TheRasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th – 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[232]^[233] India was to melt the first derived from a long experience of the old alchemy zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique. The ancient Persians had also tried to reduce zinc oxide in an open stove, but had failed. Zawar in Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the first known old zinc smelting site in the world.^{[citation needed]} The distillation technique of zinc production dates back to the 12th century CE and is an important contribution of India in the world of science.

• Preliminary concept of gravity – The concept of gravity as attracting objects towards Earth was already known to Greek scholars,Brahmagupta in sixth century CE also described gravity as an attractive force, using the termgurutvākarṣaṇa in which heavier objects attract towards the earth.^{[234][235][236]}
• Periodicity of comets – Indian astronomers by the 6th century CE believed that comets were apparitions that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomersVarahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomerBhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.^[237]
• Tychonic system – A similar model was implicitly mentioned in the Hindu astronomical treatiseTantrasamgraha (c. 1500 CE) byNilakantha Somayaji of theKerala school of astronomy and mathematics.^[238][239]
• Reduction of theecliptic:Achyutha Pisharadi discovered the techniques.^[240]

• Punch (drink) amixed drink containing fruits or fruit juice that can be both alcoholic and non-alcoholic originated in the Indian subcontinent before making its way into England by passage through theEast India Company.^[241] This beverage is very popular among the world with many varietal flavors and brands throughout thebeverage industry.
• Hookah or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperorAkbar I (1542–1605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smokingtobacco.^{[242][243][244][245]}

• NexCAR19, is designed to target cancer cells carrying the CD19 protein, a marker on cancer cells, enhancing precision in treatment.^[246]
• Urea stibamine – SirUpendranath Brahmachari synthesisedurea-stibamine (carbostibamide) in 1922 and determined that it was an effective treatment forkala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis).
• post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis – In 1922, Brahmachari also discovered a new, deadly form ofleishmaniasis. He called it dermal leishmanoid, marked by the appearance of sudden eruptions on the face of the patients without fever or other complaints. He observed it as a disease in partially cured cases of kala-azar, along with those who had no history of the disease at all.^[247] It has since been termed aspost-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis.
• Oral Rehydrated Solution (ORS), In 1952Hemendra Nath Chatterjee^[248] was an Indian scientist from West Bengal known for the earliest publication of a formula for Orally Rehydrated Saline (ORS) for diarrhea.^[249] According to his paper,^[248] he treated 186 patients with his oral glucose with an oral glucose-sodium electrolyte solution and was able to rehydrate his patients with mild to moderately severe cholera.
• Cholera toxin – Cholera toxin was discovered in 1959 by Indian microbiologistSambhu Nath De.^[250]
• In vitro fertilisation – the second successful birth of a 'test tube baby' occurred in India just 67 days after Louise Brown was born. The girl, named Durga, was conceived in vitro using a method developed independently bySubhash Mukhopadhyay, a physician and researcher fromKolkata. Mukhopadhyay had been performing experiments on his own with primitive instruments and a household refrigerator.^[251] However, state authorities prevented him from presenting his work at scientific conferences,^[252] and it was many years before Mukhopadhyay's contribution was acknowledged in works dealing with the subject.^{[253][better source needed]}
• Cervical cerclage – was first described byV. N. Shirodkar inBombay in 1955.^[254]

• Carrier Ethernet Switch Router (CESR) are high capacity routers which provides carrier class Ethernet service which does Layer 2 and layer 3 functionality within one single layer and also it uses cut-through switching, developed by IIT Bombay in 2011 and technology was transferred toECIL.^{[255][256][257][258]}
• Direct-to-Mobile (D2M) technology, developed by Saankya Labs and IIT Kanpur, This tech will enable mobile users to stream videos on their smartphones without an active internet connection.^[259]
• Horn antenna or microwave horn, One of the first horn antennas was constructed byJagadish Chandra Bose in 1897.^[260][261]
• Entanglement-basedQKD, DRDO and IIT Delhi demonstrated 1 km distance of quantum communication using quantumn entanglement based Quantum key distribution.^[262][263]
• Radiowave communication – In November 1894, the Indian physicist,Jagadish Chandra Bose, demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves inCalcutta.^[264][265]
• Low Mobility Large cell (LMLC), is a feature of 5G and is designed to enhance the signal transmission range of a basestation several times, helping service providers cost-effectively expand coverage in rural areas.^[266]
• Waveguide –Jagadish Chandra Bose researchedmillimetre wavelengths using waveguides, and in 1897 described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata.^[261]
• Phantom connectivity, a system for providing a higher level security to data communication in computer networks developed byISRO. Phantom connectivity model enables organization to copy users download data from Internet to Intranet without connecting both the networks.^[267]
• QpiAI-Indus - India's first full stack 25qubitsquantum computer.^[268]

• Autolay, is an interactive GUI CAD software for the design of aircraft composite components developed byAeronautical Development Agency, this tool was developed in late 1980's and used by all big aerospace companies such asBoeing,Airbus andDassault Systèmes^[269][270]
• Fragalyst, is a software for analysis of fragments from an explosion or blast developed byCSIR-CIMFR, the technology allows us to visualize the blast & fragments in a computer GUI.^[271][272]
• chatbot-based conversational AI, one of early modern AI/ML based chatbot was released byHaptik.ai in 2013, when chatbots were not common.^{[273][274][275]}
• Visual J# – A transitionalprogramming language for programmers ofJava andVisual J++ languages, so they could use their existing knowledge and applications on.NET Framework. It was developed by theHyderabad-basedMicrosoft India Development Center at HITEC City in India.^[276][277]
• Julia is a high-level, dynamic programming language. Its features are well suited for numerical analysis and computational science.Viral B. Shah an Indian computer scientist contributed to the development of the language in Bangalore while also actively involved in the initial design of the Aadhaar project in India usingIndia Stack.^[278]
• Kojo – Aprogramming language andintegrated development environment (IDE) for computer programming and learning. Kojo is anopen-source software. It was created, and is actively developed, by Lalit Pant, a computer programmer and teacher living inDehradun, India.^[279][280]
• RISC-V ISA (microprocessor) implementations (a US standard, not from India, but some implementations are such as those below):
  • SHAKTI – Open Source, Bluespec SystemVerilog definitions, for FinFET implementations of the ISA, have been created atIIT Madras, and are hosted onGitLab.^[281]
  • VEGA Microprocessors – India's first indigenous 64-bit, superscalar, out-of-order, multi-core RISC-V Processor design, developed byC-DAC.^[282]
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – A standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and the server.Abhay Bhushan drafted the initial File Transfer Protocol (RFC 114), in April 1971, while a student at theMIT.^[283]
• TCS BaNCS, was one of the first core banking software started implemented in late 1970s and released in early 80s.

• Coal Mine to PSP,Coal India will turn abandoned mines or de-coaled mine toPumped Storage Projects(PSP) with help ofNHPC hence saving huge amount of capital for development of reservoir or dams.^[284]
• CO₂-treated-C&D, researchers at the Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST) at IISc are exploring ways to store carbon dioxide from industrial flue gas in excavated soil from Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste. They are investigating the effects of injecting carbon dioxide gas into clayey soil, which is typically excavated from construction sites. This process has resulted in better stabilization of clay through the use of cement and lime, as well as a reduction in the surface area, pore volume, and lime reactivity of the clay in the soil, thereby improving the bulk engineering performance of the material.^[285][286]
• Rib & spine/Spine & Wing technique,NHAI has developed a flyover design which allows to save cost, time, minimum material usage and allows light under the flyover using the same technique.
• (I)-TM Tunneling technique:(I)-TM as Himalayan tunnelling method for tunnelling through the Himalayan geology to build tunnels in Jammu and Kashmir. Engineers decided to provide rigid supports using 'ISHB' as against the lattice girder method used in the New Austrian Tunnelling Method.ISHB uses nine-metre pipes in the mountains. It is called pipe roofing. Engineers made an umbrella using these perforated poles and filled them with PU grout.^{[287][288][289]}
• waterproof roads, zydex industries has developed waterproof road by forming a skin like layer that is water resistant using inhouse silane nanotechnology.^[290][291]
• Plastic road are made entirely of plastic or of composites of plastic with other materials. Plastic roads are different from standard roads in the respect that standard roads are made from asphalt concrete, which consists of mineral aggregates and asphalt. Most plastic roads sequesterplastic waste within the asphalt as an aggregate. Plastic roads first developed byRajagopalan Vasudevan in 2001^{[292][293][294]}
• Steelslagroad, world's first steel slag road NH-66 was constructed byCentral Road Research Institute under CSIR.^{[295][296][297][298]}

• Butter chicken was invented inMoti Mahal restaurant in Daryaganj ofDelhi in 1950's.
• Butter garlic prawns are prawns fried in garlic and dipped in butter curry. Originally from Mumbai, they're usually eaten with bread or pasta.^[299]
• Chicken 65 is a spicy, deep-fried chicken fromChennai, first invented by Hotel Buhari.
• Chicken lollipop is a fried chicken appetizer, believed to have originated in eastern India.
• Honey chilli potato is an indian starter that originated in Indo-Chinese restaurants ofKolkata.^[300]
• Filter Coffee was developed inCoorg inKarnataka.
• Instantmomos, popularly known asFrozen Momos, were introduced in 2021 by the food brand Prasuma and are similar to noodles in their preparation through oil and hot water.^{[301][302][303]}

• Payments bank is an Indian new model of banks conceptualised by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) without issuing credit.

• In 2024, one of the longest snakes to ever exist,Vasuki indicus, was discovered by scientists from theIndian Institute of Technology. The snake was estimated to be between 10.9 and 15.2 metres in length and lived 47 million years ago. The fossilised vertebrae of Vasuki indicus were discovered in a lignite mine inGujarat. It was likely a slow moving predator who killed its prey through constriction.^[304]
• In 2018, scientists from theGeological Survey of India and the Indian Institute of Technology discovered the fossil remains of a previously unknown dinosaur species in theThar Desert region of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. The dinosaur is namedTharosaurus indicus, after the Thar Desert and India.^[305]

• The world's first white tiger was Mohan, a mutant Bengal tiger captured in 1951 by Maharaja Martand Singh of Rewa. These type of tiger are found inWhite Tiger Safari & Zoo Mukundpur

• Amrapali mango – A named mango cultivar introduced in 1971 by Dr. Pijush Kanti Majumdar at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in Delhi.
• Asmon, is a plant based drug that is used to treat bronchial asthma developed byCSIR.^[306]
• Mynvax – The world's first "warm" COVID-19 vaccine, developed byIISc, capable of withstanding 37 °C (99 °F) for a month and neutralise all coronavirus variants of concern.^[307]
• ZyCoV-D vaccine – The world's first DNA-based vaccine for humans.^[308]

• Crescograph – The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist SirJagadish Chandra Bose.^[309][310]
• Shearing interferometer – Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a type of LateralShearing Interferometer utilises a laser source for measuring refractive index.^[311][312]

• Advanced Technology Vehicle - Scramjet, the ISRO has twice successfully test fired a modified Rohini 560 rocket, with added, 2nd stage, air-breathing,Scramjet engines.^{[313][314][315]}
• Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet, is a jet propulsion technology which uses solid propellant, developed byDefence Research and Development Organisation.
• Small Satellite Launch Vehicle, is a multi-stage solid propellent rocket that is cost-effective and very less complex used to deliver micro-satellites less than 500 kg weight. it is innovative as its three stages are solid propellent making it very efficient.^[316]

• 

  ATAGS – Bharat Forge and the DRDO has developed world's first electric artillery gun^[317]
• Bhargavastra, is the world's first kind of multi-micro-missile system to counter swarm drones, low-cost portable system developed by Solar Defence and Aerospace.^[318][319]
• Rifle-rated ballistic helmet,MKU has developed what it bills as "a first-of-its-kind rifle-rated ballistic helmet", MKU states that the Kavro Doma 360 is "the first anti-rifle helmet in the world that does not have bolts or any metal parts"^[320]
• Critical Situation Response Vehicle (CSRV) – The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) has made and inducted a bomb/bulletproof armoured vehicle. The latest all-terrain highly sophisticated vehicle 'CSRV' has given a shot in the arm to the Central Reserve Police Force engaged in counter-terror operations.
• E-bomb – The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has been developing an e-bomb which will emit electromagnetic shock waves that destroy electronic circuits and communication networks of enemy force.^[321] The tow bodies in Lakshya-2 Weapon Delivery Configuration carry High Energy Weapon Payload.^[322]
• Photonic radar, On 29 June 2025, DRDO announced that it has completed building the photonic radar for fighter jets, which will replace AESA Radar, such type of radars cannot be easily jammed.^[323] The radar is made out of multiple Photonic Transmit Receive modules. In 2022, they tested the radar which was able to image small objects, measuring just 3 x 4 cm (1.2 x 1.6 in).^[324]
• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell air-independent propulsion (PAFC AIP) is a 270 kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) air-independent propulsion (AIP) system to power the Kalvari-class submarines is developed by theNaval Materials Research Laboratory of Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration withLarsen & Toubro andThermax. The patent is owned byDRDO. Its application is considered to be wide and it can also power ships in future.^[325]

• Suri Transmission, is a hydromechanical transmission unit for diesel locomotives developed by Man Mohan Suri.
• Helmet AC - Featuring a plastic top and built-in-fan-like structure, the AC helmets are powered by a battery pack, which is worn by the traffic police officials on their waist. These helmets work for around 8 hours on a single full charge.^[326]
• CNG car/vehicle –Bajaj Auto launched the first 'commercial' lot of its CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) autorickshaws in Delhi on 29 May 2000. By 1 December 2002, the last diesel bus had disappeared from Delhi's roads, all buses were running on CNG. At the beginning of 2005, 10,300 CNG busses, 10,000 CNG taxis and 10,000 CNG cars run on Delhi's roads.^[327]

• AKS primality test andAgrawal's conjecture– The AKS primality test is adeterministicprimality-provingalgorithm created and published by threeIndian Institute of Technology Kanpur computer scientists,Manindra Agrawal,Neeraj Kayal, andNitin Saxena on 6 August 2002 in a paper titledPRIMES is in P.^[328][329] Commenting on the impact of this discovery,Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".^[329][330]
• Partial Balanced Incomplete Block Designs (BIBD) was developed byRaj Chandra Bose and Kesavan Raghavan Nair in 1939.^[331]
• Parthasarathy–Ranga Rao–Varadarajan determinants or PRV determinants^[332],K. R. Parthasarathy along withR. Ranga Rao andVeeravalli S. Varadarajan discovered these class of determinants inRepresentations of Complex Semi-Simple Lie Groups and Lie Algebras, the paper has subsequently often been referred to as the “PRV paper”.^[333]
• Multivariate Statistical Theory, is one of the base foundational concept of statistics was developed byC. R. Rao in 1952 when he was inIndian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.
• Rao's Score Test was first published in 1948 inSankhya: The Indian Journal of Statistics titledOn Distributions of the Maximum Likelihood Estimates byC. R. Rao.^[334]
• Roy’s Largest Root Test, proposed the test in 1953 as part of his "union-intersection principle", a unified approach to multivariate hypothesis testing.^[335]
• Roy-Hotelling Theorem, is used to connects the eigenvalues of matrices in multivariate statistics proposed in 1953.^[336]
• Seshadri constant – Inalgebraic geometry, a Seshadri constant is an invariant of an ample line bundle L at a point P on analgebraic variety.The name is in honour of the Indian mathematicianC. S. Seshadri.
• Sieve of Sundaram, is a prime number generation algorithm that was developed by Indian math student S. P. Sundaram.
• Standard monomial theory, C. S. Seshadri introduced a concept namedStandard Monomials in 1978.
• Basu's theorem – The Basu's theorem, a result ofDebabrata Basu (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.^[337][338]
• Kosambi–Karhunen–Loève theorem (also known as theKarhunen–Loève theorem) The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination oforthogonal functions, analogous to aFourier series representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first^[339] considered byDamodar Dharmananda Kosambi.^[340]
• Kaprekar Constants: Numbers 495 and 6174. The Indian mathematicianD.R.Kaprekar discovered the number 6174 is reached after repeatedly subtracting the smallest number from the largest number that can be formed from any four digits not all the same. The number 495 is similarly reached for three digits number.
• Kosaraju's algorithm is a linear time algorithm to find the strongly connected components of a directed graph. Aho, Hopcroft and Ullman credit it to S. Rao Kosaraju and Micha Sharir. Kosaraju suggested it in 1978.
• Parthasarathy's theorem. is a generalization of Von Neumann's minimax theorem created byThiruvenkatachari Parthasarathy.
• Ramanujan theta function,Ramanujan prime,Ramanujan summation,Ramanujan graph andRamanujan's sum – Discovered by the Indian mathematicianSrinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.^[341]
• Shrikhande graph –Graph invented by the Indian mathematicianS.S. Shrikhande in 1959.

• Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form –Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesised NH₄NO₂ in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.^[342] Prior to Ray's synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.^[342]
• Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly byShanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.^[343] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at aRoyal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.^[343]
• Bhabha scattering – In 1935, Indian nuclear physicistHomi J. Bhabha published a paper in theProceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.^[344] Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honour of his contributions in the field.^[344]
• Bose–Einstein statistics,condensate – On 4 June 1924 the Indian physicistSatyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript toAlbert Einstein entitledPlanck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journalPhilosophical Magazine.^[345] The paper introduced what is today calledBose statistics, which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made ofphotons.^[345][346] Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigiousZeitschrift für Physik.^[345][346] Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted theBose-Einstein condensate.^[346][347]
• Braunstein-Ghosh-Severini Entropy – This modelling of entropy using network theory is used in the analysis ofquantum gravity and is named after Sibasish Ghosh and his teammates,Samuel L. Braunstein and Simone Severini.
• Dual-phase steel, was publicly first described in "Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels" by P.C. Chakraborti and M.K. Mitra.^[348]
• Galena, applied use in electronics of – Bengali scientist SirJagadish Chandra Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.^[349] The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting ofshortwave,white light andultraviolet light.^[349] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he calledPoint Contact Diode using Galena.^[350]
• Mahalanobis distance – Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statisticianPrasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.^[351]
• Mercurous nitrite – The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in theJournal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.^[342] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.^[342]
• Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed byGopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published his results in theJournal of Molecular Biology in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool forcommunication, representation, and various kinds ofdata analysis.^[352]
• Raman effect – The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named forSir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."^[353]
• Raychaudhuri equation – Discovered by theBengali physicistAmal Kumar Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of thePenrose-Hawking singularity theorems ofgeneral relativity.^[354]
• Saha ionization equation is an expression that relates the ionization state of a gas in thermal equilibrium to the temperature and pressure.
• Periodicity in Nuclear Properties: A sharp pattern is discovered by an Indian researcher regarding the nuclear properties of chemical elements. The remarkable deviations are noticed near the magic numbers.^[355]
• Process of formation of the E layer of the ionosphere and night sky luminiscence: Discovered by the Indian physicist, Sisir Kumar Mitra.^[356]
• Boson: Satyendra Nath Bose's research led to the discovery of theBoson, one of theelementary particles on theStandard Model ofParticle Physics.

• Lunar water – Although the presence of water ice on the Moon has been conjectured by various scientists since the 1960s, inconclusive evidence of free water ice had also been identified. The first incontrovertible evidence of water on the Moon was provided by the payload Chace carried by theMoon Impact Probe released byChandrayaan-1 in 2009,^{[357][358][359]} confirmed and established byNASA.^[360]
• Saha ionisation equation – The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientistMeghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualisesionisations in context of stellar atmospheres.^[361]
• Quasi-normal modes ofblack holes –C. V. Vishveshwara discovered thequasi-normal modes of black holes.^[362] These modes of black hole vibrations are one of the main targets of observation using the gravitational wave detector.
• Chandrasekhar limit:Subramanyan Chandrasekhar discovered the maximum mass of a stablewhite dwarf star.

• Timeline of Indian innovation
• History of science and technology in India
• Timeline of historic inventions
• List of Indian mathematicians
• List of Indian scientists
• List of Indian physicists