Linen (/ˈlɪnən/) is atextile made from thefibers of theflax plant.
Linen is very strong and absorbent, and it dries faster thancotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. Linen textiles can be made from flax plant fiber, yarn, as well as woven and knitted. Linen also has other distinctive characteristics, such as its tendency to wrinkle. It takes significantly longer to harvest than a material like cotton, although both are natural fibers. It is also more difficult to weave than cotton.[1]
Linen textiles appear to be some of the oldest in the world; their history goes back many thousands of years. Dyed flax fibers found in a cave in the Caucasus (present-dayGeorgia) suggest the use of woven linen fabrics from wild flax may date back over 30,000 years.[2] Linen was used in ancient civilizations includingMesopotamia[3] andancient Egypt, and linen is mentioned in theBible. In the 18th century and beyond, the linen industry was important in the economies of several countries in Europe as well as the American colonies.
Textiles in alinen weave texture, even when made of cotton,hemp, or other non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen".
The wordlinen is ofWest Germanic origin[4] andcognate to theLatin name for theflax plant,linum, and the earlierGreekλινόν (linón).
This word history has given rise to a number of other terms in English, most notablyline, from the use of a linen (flax)thread to determine a straight line. It is also etymologically related to a number of other terms, includinglining, because linen was often used to create an inner layer for clothing,[5] andlingerie, from French, which originally denoted underwear made of linen.[6]
People in various parts of the world began weaving linen at least several thousand years ago.[7] It was also recovered fromQumran Cave 1 near the Dead Sea.[8]
The discovery of dyed flax fibers in a cave inSouthern Caucasus,West Asia (modern-day country ofGeorgia) dated to 36,000 years ago suggests that ancient people used wild flax fibers to create linen-like fabrics from an early date.[9][10]
Fragments of straw, seeds, fibers, yarns, and various types of fabrics, including linen samples, dating to about 8,000 BC have been found in Swiss lake dwellings.[11]
Woven flax textile fragments have been "found between infant and child" in a burial atÇatalhöyük, a large settlement dating to around 7,000 BC.[12] To the southeast, in ancientMesopotamia, flax was domesticated and linen was produced.[13] It was used mainly by the wealthier class of the society, including priests.[14] TheSumerian poem of the courtship ofInanna mentions flax and linen.[15]
Inancient Egypt, linen was used for mummification and for burial shrouds. It was alsoworn as clothing on a daily basis; white linen was worn because of the extreme heat.[citation needed] For example, theTarkhan dress, considered to be among the oldest woven garments in the world and dated to between 3482 and 3102 BC, is made of linen.[16]Plutarch wrote that the priests ofIsis also wore linen because of its purity.[17][18] Linen was sometimes used as a form of currency in ancient Egypt.[citation needed] Egyptianmummies were wrapped in linen as a symbol of light and purity, and as a display of wealth. Some of these fabrics, woven from hand-spun yarns, were very fine for their day, but are coarse compared with modern linen.[19]
The earliest written documentation of a linen industry comes from theLinear B tablets ofPylos, Greece.[20][21] There are many references to linen throughout theBible.[22]
By theMiddle Ages, there was a thriving trade in German flax and linen. The trade spread throughoutGermany by the 9th century and spread toFlanders andBrabant by the 11th century. TheLower Rhine was a center of linen making in the Middle Ages.[23] Flax was cultivated and linen used for clothing in Ireland by the 11th century.[24] Evidence suggests that flax may have been grown and sold in Southern England in the 12th and 13th centuries.[25] Textiles, primarily linen and wool, were produced in decentralized home weaving mills.[26]
Linen continued to be valued for garments in the 16th century[27] and beyond. Specimens of linen garments worn by historical figures have survived. For example, a linen cap worn byEmperor Charles V was carefully preserved after his death in 1558.[27]
There is a long history of the production of linen in Ireland. When theEdict of Nantes was revoked in 1685, many of theHuguenots who fled France settled in the British Isles and elsewhere. They brought improved methods for linen production with them, contributing to the growth of the linen industry inIreland in particular.[28] Among them wasLouis Crommelin, a leader who was appointed overseer of the royal linen manufacture of Ireland. He settled in the town ofLisburn nearBelfast, which is itself perhaps the most famous linen producing center throughout history; during the Victorian era the majority of the world's linen was produced in the city, which gained it the nameLinenopolis.[29] Although the linen industry was already established in Ulster, Louis Crommelin found scope for improvement in weaving, and his efforts were so successful that he was appointed by the Government to develop the industry over a much wider range than the small confines of Lisburn and its surroundings. The direct result of his good work was the establishment, under statute, of the Board of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Ireland in the year 1711. Several grades were produced including coarselockram.[citation needed] TheLiving Linen Project was set up in 1995 as an oral archive of the knowledge of theIrish linen industry, which was at that time still available within a nucleus of people who formerly worked in the industry inUlster.
The linen industry was increasingly critical in the economies of Europe[30][31] in the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and then in Germany, industrialization and machine production replaced manual work and production moved from the home to new factories.[26]
Linen was also an important product in the American colonies, where it was brought over with the first settlers and became the most commonly used fabric and a valuable asset for colonial households.[32] Thehomespun movement encouraged the use of flax to make home spun textiles.[33] Through the 1830s, most farmers in the northern United States continued to grow flax for linen to be used for the family's clothing.[34]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, linen was very significant to Russia and its economy. At one time it was the country's greatest export item and Russia produced about 80% of the world's fiber flax crop.[11]
In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be theInternational Year of Natural Fibres in order to raise people's awareness of linen and othernatural fibers.[35]
Many products can be made with linen, such as clothing, bed sheets, aprons, bags, towels (swimming, bath, beach, body and wash towels), napkins, runners, and upholstery. It is used especially in sailcloth and lent cloth, sewing threads, handkerchiefs, table cloth, sheets, collars, cuffs etc..
Today, linen is usually an expensive textile produced in relatively small quantities. It has a longstaple (individual fiber length) relative to cotton and othernatural fibers.[36]
Linen fabric has been used for table coverings, bed coverings and clothing for centuries. The significant cost of linen derives not only from the difficulty of working with the thread but also because the flax plant itself requires a great deal of attention. In addition, flax thread is not elastic, and therefore it is difficult to weave without breaking threads. Thus linen is considerably more expensive to manufacture than cotton.[citation needed]
The collective term "linens" is still often used generically to describe a class ofwoven orknitted bed, bath, table and kitchen textiles traditionally made of flax-based linen but today made from a variety of fibers. The term "linens" refers to lightweightundergarments such as shirts,chemises, waist-shirts,lingerie (a cognate withlinen), and detachable shirt collars and cuffs, all of which were historically made almost exclusively out of linen. The inner layer of fine composite cloth garments (as for example dress jackets) was traditionally made of linen, hence the wordlining.[37]
Over the past 30 years the end use for linen has changed dramatically. Approximately 70% of linen production in the 1990s was for apparel textiles, whereas in the 1970s only about 5% was used for fashion fabrics.[38]
Linen uses range across bed and bath fabrics (tablecloths, bath towels, dish towels, bed sheets); home and commercial furnishing items (wallpaper/wall coverings, upholstery, window treatments); apparel items (suits, dresses, skirts, shirts); and industrial products (luggage, canvases, sewing thread).[36] It was once the preferred yarn for hand-sewing the uppers ofmoccasin-style shoes (loafers), but has been replaced by synthetics.
A linenhandkerchief, pressed and folded to display the corners, was a standard decoration of a well-dressed man'ssuit during most of the first part of the 20th century.
Nowadays, linen is one of the most preferred materials for bed sheets due to its durability and hypoallergenic properties. Linen can be up to three times stronger than cotton. This is because thecellulose fibers in linen yarn are slightly longer and wrapped tighter than those found in cotton yarn, which gives it great durability and allows linen products to be long-lasting.[39]
Currently researchers are working on a cotton/flax blend to create new yarns which will improve the feel of denim during hot and humid weather.[40] Conversely, some brands such as 100% Capri specially treat the linen to look like denim.[41]
Linen fabric is one of the preferred traditional supports foroil painting. In the United States cotton is popularly used instead, as linen is many times more expensive there, restricting its use to professional painters. In Europe, however, linen is usually the only fabric support available in art shops; in the UK both are freely available with cotton being cheaper. Linen is preferred to cotton for its strength, durability andarchival integrity.[citation needed]
Linen is also used extensively by artisan bakers. Known as acouche, the flax cloth is used to hold the dough into shape while in the final rise, just before baking. The couche is heavily dusted with flour which is rubbed into the pores of the fabric. Then the shaped dough is placed on the couche. The floured couche makes a "non stick" surface to hold the dough. Then ridges are formed in the couche to keep the dough from spreading.
In the past, linen was also used for books (the only surviving example of which is theLiber Linteus). Due to its strength, in theMiddle Ages linen was used forshields,gambesons, andbowstrings; inclassical antiquity it was used to make a type of body armour, referred to as alinothorax. Additionally, linen was commonly used to make riggings, sail-cloths, nets, ropes, and canvases because thetensility of the cloth would increase by 20% when wet.[42]
Because of its strength when wet,Irish linen is a very popular wrap of pool/billiard cues, due to its absorption of sweat from hands.[43]
In 1923, the German cityBielefeld issuedbanknotes printed on linen.[44] United States currency paper is made from 25% linen and 75% cotton.[45]
Linen is abast fiber. Flax fibers vary in length from about 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6in) and average 12–16micrometers in diameter. There are two varieties: shorter tow fibers used for coarser fabrics and longer line fibers used for finer fabrics. Flax fibers can usually be identified by their "nodes" which add to the flexibility and texture of the fabric.
The cross-section of the linen fiber is made up of irregularpolygonal shapes which contribute to the coarse texture of the fabric.[46]
Linen fabric feels cool to touch, a phenomenon which indicates its higher conductivity (the same principle that makes metals feel "cold"). It is smooth, making the finished fabric lint-free, and gets softer the more it is washed. However, constant creasing in the same place in sharp folds will tend to break the linen threads. This wear can show up in collars, hems, and any area that is iron creased during laundering. Linen's poor elasticity means that it easily wrinkles.
Mildew, perspiration, and bleach can damage the fabric, but because it is not made from animal fibers (keratin) it is impervious toclothes moths andcarpet beetles. Linen is relatively easy to take care of, since it resists dirt and stains, has no lint orpilling tendency, and can be dry-cleaned, machine-washed, or steamed. It can withstand high temperatures, and has only moderate initialshrinkage.[46]
Linen should not be dried too much by tumble drying, and it is much easier to iron when damp. Linen wrinkles very easily, and thus some more formal garments require ironing often, in order to maintain perfect smoothness. Nevertheless, the tendency to wrinkle is often considered part of linen's particular "charm", and many modern linen garments are designed to be air-dried on a good clothes hanger and worn without the necessity of ironing.
A characteristic often associated with linen yarn is the presence ofslubs, or small, soft, irregular lumps, which occur randomly along its length. In the past, slubs were traditionally considered to be defects, and were associated with low-quality linen. However, in the case of many present-day linen fabrics, particularly in the decorative furnishing industry, slubs are considered as part of the aesthetic appeal of an expensive natural product. In addition, slubs do not compromise the integrity of the fabric, and therefore they are not viewed as a defect. However, the very finest linen has very consistent diameter threads, with no slubs at all.
Linen candegrade in a few weeks when buried in soil. Linen is more biodegradable than cotton, making it an eco friendly fiber.[47]
The standard measure of bulk linen yarn is the "lea", which is the number of yards in a pound of linen divided by 300. For example, a yarn having a size of 1 lea will give 300 yards per pound. The fine yarns used in handkerchiefs, etc. might be 40 lea, and give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen (i.e. the number of length units per unit mass). The symbol is NeL. The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound.
Linen is laborious to manufacture.[48]
The quality of the finished linen product is often dependent upon growing conditions andharvesting techniques. To generate the longest possible fibers, flax is either hand-harvested by pulling up the entire plant or stalks are cut very close to the root. After harvesting, the plants are dried, and then the seeds are removed through a mechanized process called "rippling" (threshing) andwinnowing.
The fibers must then be loosened from the stalk. This is achieved throughretting, a process which uses bacteria to decompose the pectin that binds the fibers together. Natural retting methods take place in tanks and pools, or directly in the fields. There are also chemical retting methods; these are faster, but are typically more harmful to the environment and to the fibers themselves.[citation needed]
After retting, the stalks are ready forscutching, which takes place between August and December. Scutching removes the woody portion of the stalks by crushing them between two metal rollers, so that the parts of the stalk can be separated. The fibers are removed and the other parts such aslinseed,shives, andtow are set aside for other uses. Next the fibers areheckled: the short fibers are separated withheckling combs by 'combing' them away, to leave behind only the long, soft flax fibers.[citation needed]
After the fibers have been separated and processed, they are typically spun into yarns and woven or knit into linen textiles. These textiles can then be bleached, dyed, printed on, or finished with a number of treatments or coatings.[46]
An alternate production method is known as "cottonizing" which is quicker and requires less equipment. The flax stalks are processed using traditional cotton machinery; however, the finished fibers often lose the characteristic linen look.[citation needed]
In 2018, according to theUnited Nations' repository of official international trade statistics, China was the top exporter of woven linen fabrics by trade value, with a reported $732.3 million in exports; Italy ($173.0 million), Belgium ($68.9 million) and the United Kingdom ($51.7 million) were also major exporters.[49]
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